The content on this page represents the collected quantitative data that was produced by Forsyth Futures at the request of the Black Philanthropy Initiative. This quantitative data content was deliberated on by the CBR participants through multiple narrative interpretation sessions. Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.
Each of the measures represented on this page include certain key takeaways that were produced by analyzing the quantitative data. All of these key takeaways were tested for statistically significant differences by Forsyth Futures staff researchers — they all represent statistically significant differences. Each measure also contains specific data points in table format. Please use caution when comparing data points in these tables that are not explicitly included in the key takeaways for the measure as these comparisons have not been tested for statistical significance and perceived differences may not be real. Many of these data points also have a margin of error that is not included in the table.
If you have a question about the relationships between data points in this report, their associated margins of error, or questions about the quantitative data in general, please contact info@forsythfutures.org.
Health insurance provides important protection for a household’s assets by reducing expenses incurred from a medical emergency or the treatment of a chronic illness that might otherwise require a family to spend down long-term savings, sell off assets, or go into debt. In addition, because health insurance coverage encourages people to seek preventive care and treatment for injuries and illnesses, it minimizes the impact a major injury or illness would otherwise have on an individual’s ability to earn income. The uninsured are often one serious illness or accident away from financial crisis.
While the Affordable Care Act (ACA) significantly reduced the uninsured rate, millions of Americans still lack coverage, including the low-income individuals who fall into the coverage gap as a result of some states’ decisions not to expand Medicaid under ACA. Further, the repeal of the ACA’s individual mandate — and Congress’ attempts to repeal the ACA outright — have sown the seeds of a rise in uninsured rates in every state (Kaiser Family Foundation, 2016).
Key Finding:
About 83% of white residents 18 years old and older in Forsyth County had health insurance while about 77% of Black or African American residents had health insurance in 2021. Insurance rates for white and Black/African American residents were considerably larger than Hispanic/Latino residents’ insurance rates— approximately 50% of Hispanic/Latino residents had health insurance.
Table: Residents with Health Insurance, 2021
The table shows the number of residents with health insurance as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
U.S. Census Bureau (2021). American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
Limited access to supermarkets, supercenters, grocery stores, or other sources of healthy and affordable food make it harder for some people to eat a healthy diet in the US. This measure utilizes the USDA’s Food Access Research Atlas to locate census tracts with food access issues. Census tracts are identified as having food access issues if they are low income and if “more than 100 housing units do not have a vehicle and are more than ½ mile from the nearest supermarket, or a significant number or share of residents are more than 20 miles from the nearest supermarket.” The USDA defines census tracts as low income if the census tract has a poverty rate of 20% or higher or if the median income for the census tract is less than 80% of the state or metropolitan area. The 2015 - 2019 ACS tables were used to calculate the percentage of individuals in each race and ethnic category that are living in a census tract with food accessibility issues (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, 2021).
Key Finding:
In Forsyth County, disparities are present in food accessibility rates by race/ethnicity. On average between 2015 and 2019, 48% of Black, non-Hispanic and 38% of Hispanic/Latino residents live in a census tract that the USDA classified as having food accessibility issues in 2019, compared to 11% of white, non-Hispanic residents.
Table: Residents Living in a Census Tract with Food Accessibility Issues, 2019
The table shows the number of residents living in a census tract with food accessibility issues as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
Economic Research Service (ERS), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). Food Environment Atlas. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-environment-atlas/.
The homeownership rate describes the percent of individuals who live in an owned home. Owning a home, or other assets such as savings accounts, investments, and vehicles provides financial security that can protect households from unexpected expenses and decrease the likelihood of experiencing poverty. In its State of the Nation’s Housing 2023 report, the Joint Center for Housing Studies at Harvard University stated, “Millions of households are now priced out of homeownership, grappling with housing cost burdens, or lacking shelter altogether, including a disproportionate share of people of color, increasing the need for policies to address the national housing shortfall at the root of the affordability crisis. Likewise, there is growing urgency for public and private investment to address longstanding disinvestment in underserved communities of color, adapt the housing stock to increasing risks of climate change, and expand options for older adults to age safely in their communities (Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University, 2023).” While homeownership rates do not indicate overall wealth, or even the value of homes, they do indicate ownership of a valuable asset, which could provide financial security.
Key Finding:
77% of non-Hispanic, white Forsyth County residents live in an owned home compared to 56% of non-Hispanic, Black residents and 55% Hispanic/Latino residents.
Table: Residents who Own their Home, 2021
The table shows the number of residents who live in an owned home as a percentage of the population of that race / ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
U.S. Census Bureau (2021). American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
When a significant portion of a household’s income is devoted to housing expenses, there is less money available to cover other basic needs such as food, health care, and transportation, a situation which may result in financial insecurity (Cramer & Shanks, 2014). Housing/Rent cost burden measures housing expenses as a percentage of household income for homeowners and renters. The threshold for housing cost burden is when a household spends more than 30% of their income on housing expenses. Expenses include mortgage or rent payments, utilities, property taxes, insurance, and other fees.
Key Finding:
37% of non-Hispanic, white Forsyth County residents are cost burdened by housing expenses compared to 41% of non-Hispanic, Black residents and 41% Hispanic/Latino residents.
Table: Residents Cost Burdened by Rental or Mortgage Payments, 2021
The table shows the number of residents cost burdened by rental or mortgage payments as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
U.S. Census Bureau (2021). American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
Financial stability is critical for residents in our community. Generally, a household is financially stable when their overall income is enough to afford its expenses. Income insufficiency is one measure used to assess financial stability and compares estimated household expenses to household income to show who lacks the resources to afford their living expenses.
One of the most common measures used to understand a community's financial well-being is the poverty rate, which looks at the percentage of residents whose income falls below the federal poverty level set by the US government. While poverty rates are commonly used to understand financial instability, there is some evidence that poverty rates rely on outdated assumptions and may not truly reflect how many people are financially unstable (Meyer & Sullivan, 2012; National Research Council, 1995). Forsyth Futures, a Forsyth County data and research nonprofit, developed the income insufficiency measure as an alternative measure of financial stability that is locally relevant and more effective than the poverty rate since it accounts more for local living costs.
Key Finding:
Disparities are present in income insufficiency rates by race/ethnicity. In 2021, 38% of Black and 36% of Hispanic/Latino residents in Forsyth County didn't have enough income to cover their estimated expenses compared to 20% of white residents.
Table: Residents Experiencing Income Insufficiency, 2021
The table shows the number of residents as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity who experienced income insufficiency in 2021.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Sources:
Access to adequate financial resources is necessary for economic self-sufficiency (Harrington, 1962). Median income of the full-time (working 30 hours per week or more for 52 weeks a year) working age population, 25 to 64 year olds, is a measure of income that residents earned through wages from their employer together with any self-employment income. Median income of the working age population refers to the specific income level that is below the highest-earning 50% of the working age population and above the lowest-earning 50% of the working age population. In this indicator residents who have completed an associate’s degree or higher or are considered to have a college degree.
Key Takeaway: Median Income by Race/Ethnicity
White, non-Hispanic full-time working age adults had a higher median income ($57,676) than Black, non-Hispanic ($36,047) and Hispanic/Latino ($39,137) full-time working age adults. This difference is large enough that it is not likely to be the result of random chance or how the data was collected.
Note on statistical significance: Tests for statistical significance were only performed to verify differences between Black, non-Hispanic and white-non-Hispanic residents. Analysts cannot be sure that the difference in median incomes between Black, non-Hispanic residents and Hispanic / Latino residents are not the result of random chance or how the data was collected, but that does not mean that a real difference does not exist. Please use caution when comparing.
Key Takeaway: Median Income by Educational Attainment
In general, full-time working age adults with a college degree had a higher median income ($63,856) than those who had no college degree ($35,018).
Key Takeaways: Median Income by Race/Ethnicity AND Educational Attainment
White, non-Hispanic full-time working age adults with college degrees had higher median incomes ($67,975) than Black, non-Hispanic ($51,496) and Hispanic / Latino ($41,197) working age adults with college degrees.
Note on statistical significance: Analysts are not confident in the statistically significant difference in median incomes between Black, non-Hispanic workers with college degrees and Hispanic / Latino workers with college degrees. Please use caution when comparing.Among full-time working age adults without college degrees, Black, non-Hispanic workers have lower median incomes ($25,954) than both white, non-Hispanic ($42,227) and Hispanic / Latino workers ($36,150). Note on statistical significance: Analysts are not confident that the difference between the median incomes of white, non-Hispanic workers and Hispanic / Latino workers are not the result of random chance or how the data was collected. Please use caution when comparing.
Table: Median Income, 2021
The table shows median income of residents by college degree status and by both race/ethnicity and college degree status.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data source:
U.S. Census Bureau (2021). American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
Women who suspect they may be pregnant are generally advised to schedule a visit to their health care provider to begin prenatal care. Prenatal visits to a health care provider usually include a physical exam, weight checks, and providing a urine sample. Depending on the stage of the pregnancy, health care providers may also do blood tests and imaging tests, such as ultrasound exams. These visits also include discussions about the mother's health, the fetus's health, and any questions about the pregnancy. These services support pregnant individuals by monitoring and promoting the wellbeing of the pregnant person and the developing fetus.
Significant disparities exist in access to and quality of prenatal care, particularly among Black mothers in the United States.
Black mothers in the U.S. face disproportionate barriers to receiving adequate prenatal care, which can lead to negative health outcomes for both the mother and the baby. These disparities may stem from various factors, including systemic racism, socioeconomic inequalities, implicit biases within healthcare systems, and unequal access to resources and healthcare facilities (Lu et al., 2015; Hill, Artiga, & Ranji, 2022; Harrigan-Farrelly, 2022; University of Minnesota, 2019).
The measurement below indicates the proportion of women who received prenatal care within the first three months of pregnancy by their race/ethnicity. It should be noted that frequency of follow-up visits is determined by the individual needs of the pregnant person and an assessment of their risks.
Key Finding:
84% of non-Hispanic, white Forsyth County residents who gave birth in 2021 received prenatal care services within the first three months of pregnancy compared to 78% of non-Hispanic, Black residents, and 68% of Hispanic/Latino residents.
Table: Residents Who Received Prenatal Care Services, 2021
The table shows the residents who received prenatal care services both by number and by percentage of the population of that race / ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
NC Department of Health and Human Services. (2023, March 20). Baby Book Data (State of North Carolina 2021). Retrieved from https://schs.dph.ncdhhs.gov/data/vital/babybook/ 2021.htm.
Examining property values disaggregated by race and ethnicity can illuminate current and historical inequities within a community. Such data often reveals the lingering impacts of discriminatory practices like redlining, which systematically undervalued properties in predominantly non-white neighborhoods. These disparities can affect wealth accumulation, access to quality public services, and neighborhood investment, perpetuating racial and socioeconomic divides. Furthermore, understanding these value differences is crucial for addressing issues like residential segregation and gentrification, and for informing equitable housing policies (Rothstein, 2017).
Property value as a measure refers to the price a potential buyer is willing to pay for a piece property. The American Community Survey asks, “About how much do you think this house and lot, apartment, or mobile home (and lot, if owned) would sell for if it were for sale?” Therefore, the property value estimate provided by survey respondents is subjective, but that does not mean that is not a fair proxy for estimating property values in Forsyth County.
Key Finding:
The median value of homes owned by a member of the household was $225,000 for households where the household member completing the survey described themselves as white, non-Hispanic compared to $190,000 for households where the household member responding to the survey described themselves as Black, non-Hispanic.
Table: Median Property Values, 2021
The table shows median property values by race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source U.S. Census Bureau (2021).
American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
Racial segregation in Forsyth County's local schools reflects the broader trend of racial segregation in the county's residential living. Within the school system, racial segregation leads to unequal funding and a concentration of students in high-poverty schools. Segregation is typically segregation by both race and poverty. Black and Latino students tend to be in schools with a substantial majority of poor children, but white and Asian students are typically in middle-class schools (Orfield & Frankenberg, 2014).
The segregation measure uses demographic thresholds established by the Bridges Collaborative. The Bridges Collaborative is an initiative aimed at fostering collaboration, research, and best practices related to school integration and diversity. Its goal is to unite practitioners, researchers, and policymakers to address issues of school segregation, racial and socioeconomic diversity, and educational equality. Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools is a member of the Bridges Collaborative (The Century Foundation, n.d.).
Key Takeaways
Overall WS/FCS School District Race/Ethnicity Breakouts:
79 Total Schools:
Table: Student Body Race/Ethnicity by School (school year 2021-22)
The spreadsheet provides race/ethnicity data on student body composition by school.Each row corresponds to an individual school within the district. Columns provide the percentages present in that school’s student body by race/ethnicity.
This table is too large to display in this webpage. Use think to download this data in PDF format.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data source:
McMillian, E., Roseboro, K., & Lallinger, S. (2022). Promoting Equity in Student Assignment: Lessons from NC and around the Country [Unpublished PowerPoint slides]. Received upon request.
Children who are unequipped with basic reading skills at the end of third grade are at much greater risk of falling behind in school. After third grade, instruction transitions from “learning to read” to “reading to learn (Annie E. Casey Foundation, 2010).” This measure is based on the reading test taken at the end of third through eighth grade; proficiency on this test is defined as possessing the skills required to read at the third through eighth grade levels.
Key Takeaway
Disparities by race/ethnicity were present for the 2021-2022 school year. The end-of-grade reading proficiency for white students was about 63% in the previous school year compared to 25% of Black and Hispanic/Latino students, respectively. That is, white students were almost 2.5 times more likely to meet end-of-grade reading proficiency standards from grades 3-8 than Black or Hispanic/Latino students, respectively.
Table: Students Proficient in Reading (Grades 3-8) by Race/Ethnicity, 2021-22
The table shows the students who were proficient in reading (grades 3-8) by race/ethnicity; by both number and number as a percentage of the student population of that race/ethnicity.
Math is a critical way to measure and understand the world with greater precision. Many careers in the modern economy require a strong foundation in math. Math skills in eighth grade are a predictor of success in post-secondary education (National Mathematics Advisory Panel, 2008). Most eighth grade students take the eighth grade math EOG test or the Math I test (eighth grade students who are advanced in math). The measure used here is the percent of third through eighth grade students who were proficient at the end of their third through eighth grade year. Proficiency on these tests is defined as the skills required to do math at grade level.
Key Takeaway
Disparities by race/ethnicity were present for the 2021-2022 school year. As with end-of-grade reading proficiency, white students were more likely to be scored proficient in math across grades 3-8 than Black and Hispanic/Latino students. Additionally, the proficiency gap between Black and Hispanic/Latino students was about 7 percentage points.
Table: Students Proficient in Reading (Grades 3-8) by Race/Ethnicity, 2021-22
The table shows the students who were proficient in math (grades 3-8) by race/ethnicity; by both number and number as a percentage of the student population of that race/ethnicity.
The End-of-Grade (EOG) Science Tests for grades 5 and 8 in North Carolina measure students' proficiency in various science concepts based on the state's Essential Standards for Science. The tests are comprised of multiple-choice and technology-enhanced items, and they cover topics such as Forces and Motion, Matter, Energy, Earth Systems, Living Organisms, Ecosystems, Evolution, and Genetics, with specific weight distributions for each unifying concept. (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction Office of Accountability and Testing, 2022).
The end-of-grade science proficiency tests are taken during the last 10 days of the school year for students in 5th and 8th grade. This measure represents a combined, or composite, science proficiency score across both grades. Topics measured vary by grade level, but they include content from the three science branches — life, earth, and physical science (North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, 2022).
Key Takeaway
Disparities by race/ethnicity were present for the 2021-2022 school year. While the combined science proficiency score is higher for all racial groups compared to the previous two proficiency scores, white students are more likely to be scored proficient than Black and Hispanic/Latino students. In the previous school year, 45% percent of Black and 48% of Hispanic/Latino students were proficient in science compared to nearly 82% of students.
Table: Students Proficient in Science (Grades 5-8) by Race/Ethnicity, 2021-22
The table shows the students who were proficient in science (grades 5-8) by race/ethnicity; by both number and number as a percentage of the student population of that race/ethnicty.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. (2022, August 30). 2021-22 School Assessment and Other Indicator Data [Measure: SCGS]. https://www.dpi.nc.gov/2021-22-school-assessment-and-other-indicator-data.
Time that students spend out of the classroom for disciplinary reasons can disrupt learning. Students of color are more likely to receive a suspension which contributes to disparities in educational outcomes (Losen & Gillespie, 2012).
The measure used here is the risk ratio. The risk ratio is the likelihood a child of a given race/ethnicity is to be referred for an incident compared to the average referral for a white student (group with the lowest referral rate for an incident). Incidents can lead to different types of discipline including in-school suspension, out-of-school suspension, parent conference, etc. The data below describes the likelihood of a student receiving an out-of-school suspension.
Key Takeaways
Black/African American students were 4.04 times as likely as white students to receive out-of-school suspension while Hispanic/Latino students were 2.06 times as likely as white students to receive out-of-school suspension in the 2021-2022 school year.
Table: Student Discipline Risk Ration When Compared with white, Non-Hispanic Students, 2021-22
The table shows the risk ratio for student discipline when compared with white, non-Hispanic students.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data source:
Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools. (2022). Discipline Referral Risk Ratio [Unpublished data set]. Received from Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools via data request.
Highly effective teachers and teachers who have more experience can have a dramatic impact on student performance and success in school (Rice, 2010).
The two measures included here are teacher effectiveness and teacher experience. Teacher effectiveness is determined by an evaluation of teachers across five standards:
A rating of ‘needs improvement’ signifies a teacher did not meet proficiency on at least one of the five ratings; a rating of ‘effective’ means they were at least proficient on all standards, and highly effective means they met ‘accomplished’ or ‘distinguished’ on all five standards. This indicator includes teachers with ratings of ‘effective’ and ‘highly effective’ as ‘effective.’
Teacher experience defines beginning teachers as teachers who are in their first three years of teaching.
Key Takeaways: Teacher Effectiveness (2019-2020 school year)
Table: Teacher Effectiveness in WS/FCS (school year 2019-20)
The spreadsheet presents detailed data on teacher effectiveness in the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County School district for the academic year 2019-20. Each row corresponds to an individual school within the district. Columns provide the year, school name, percentage of ‘effective’ and ‘non-effective’ teachers, total student count, and a breakdown of student demographics by Hispanic/Latino, Black/African American (Non-Hispanic), and white (Non-Hispanic) backgrounds.
This table is too large to display in this webpage. Use this link to download this data in PDF format.
Key Takeaways: Teacher Effectiveness (2021-2022 school year)
Table: Teacher Effectiveness in WS/FCS (school year 2021-22)
The spreadsheet presents detailed data on teacher experience in the Winston-Salem/Forsyth County School district for the academic year 2021-22. Each row corresponds to an individual school within the district. Columns provide the year, school name, the percentage of beginning teachers, the percentage of experienced teachers, total student count, and a breakdown of student demographics by Hispanic/Latino, Black/African American (Non-Hispanic), and white (Non-Hispanic) backgrounds.
This table is too large to display in this webpage. Use this link to download this data in PDF format.
Data Source:
School Report Card Resources for Researchers | NC DPI. Retrieved from https://www.dpi.nc.gov/data-reports/school-report-cards/school-report-card-resources-researchers
A diverse school staff that is representative of the student body is one important way to help equalize opportunities for students of color. Increased teacher diversity can have beneficial effects on students’ experiences in the classroom (Cherng & Halpin, 2016).
Key Takeaways
Table: WS/FCS Teachers by Race/Ethnicity, 2021-22
The table shows the number of teachers as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
Statistical Profile | North Carolina Department of Public Instruction. Retrieved from https://www.dpi.nc.gov/districts-schools/district-operations/financial-and-business-services/demographics-and-finances/statistical-profile
Reliable transportation is essential for accessing opportunities like jobs, healthcare, and education. Furthermore, communities without efficient transportation options might face economic strains, environmental degradation, and health risks due to extended commutes and unsafe public infrastructure (Bullard & Johnson, 1997).
This indicator measures the means of transportation and the commute times for individuals who are 16 years and older and employed. The American Community Survey asks, “How did this person usually get to work last week?” and respondents choose only the method of transportation used for the most of the distance. The American Community Survey also asks, “How many minutes did it usually take this person to get from home to work last week?”
Key Takeaways
Table: Worker Means of Transportation, 2021
The table shows the number of workers as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity and their reported means of transportation.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source:
U.S. Census Bureau (2021). American Community Survey (ACS), 1-Year Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2021. Retrieved from Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS).
Civic engagement is crucial for a thriving community as it promotes democratic representation, ensures accountability of elected officials, and fosters community cohesion. An engaged citizenry is more informed about local issues, fostering a collective approach to problem-solving. Moreover, civic participation promotes social equity by giving a voice to marginalized groups and facilitating skill development in individuals. Engaged communities can better shape their futures, championing a more fair and just society for all members (Putnam, 2000).
Civic engagement refers to many aspects of community interactions including volunteerism, participation in social or religious organizations, and voter turnout. One measure of an engaged community is its levels of political or electoral participation, commonly measured through trends in voter turnout. Increased levels of voter turnout can lead to increased levels of community representation among leaders, which can lead to increased levels of social trust and positive health outcomes.
The electoral participation rate is based on how many citizens over the age of 18 have turned out and participated in the general elections for both the 2020 Presidential and 2022 Midterm Elections.
The race/ethnicity disaggregation does not include Hispanic/Latino residents due to incomplete voter registration data. Because of this incomplete data this indicator uses different race categories than other indicators.
Key Takeaways
Table: Voter Participation in Recent Elections
The table shows voter participation (through number of voters and number of voters as a percentage of the population of that race/ethnicity) for both the 2020 Presidential Election and the 2022 Midterm Election, by race/ethnicity.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Sources:
Table: Overall WS/FCS Race/Ethnicity Composition of Students, 2022-23 school year
The table shows the racial/ethnic demographics of WS/FCS students by percentage for the 2022-23 school year.
Data note on statistical significance and margin of error.
Data Source: Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools. (n.d.). 2022-23 Student Membership Information. Retrieved August 14, 2023, from https://www.wsfcs.k12.nc.us/Page/122543
Annie E. Casey Foundation. (2010). EARLY WARNING! Why Reading by the End of Third Grade Matters.
Bullard, R. D., & Johnson, G. S. (1997). Just transportation: Dismantling race and class barriers to mobility. New Society Publishers.
Cherng, H. Y. S., & Halpin, P. F. (2016). The importance of minority teachers: Student perceptions of minority versus White teachers. Educational Researcher, 45(7), 407-420.
Cramer, R. & Shanks, T. (2014). The assets perspective: The rise of asset building and its impact on social policy. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Forsyth Futures. (2019, September). Income Insufficiency Methodology. https://www.forsythfutures.org/income-insufficiency-methodology/
Harrington, M. (1962). The Other America: Poverty in the United States. Macmillan.
Harrigan-Farrelly, J. (2022, February 7). For Black Women, Implicit Racial Bias in Medicine May Have Far-Reaching Effects. US Department of Labor Blog. https://blog.dol.gov/2022/02/07/for-black-women-implicit-racial-bias-in-medicine-may-have-far-reaching-effects
Hill, L., Artiga, S., & Ranji, U. (2022, November 1). Racial disparities in maternal and infant health: Current status and efforts to address them. Kaiser Family Foundation. https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/issue-brief/racial-disparities-in-maternal-and-infant-health-current-status-and-efforts-to-address-them/
Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University. (2023). The State of the Nation's Housing 2023. https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/reports/files/Harvard_JCHS_The_State_of_the_Nations_Housing_2023.pdf
Kaiser Family Foundation. (2016). The Uninsured: A Primer - Key Facts about Health Insurance and the Uninsured in the Era of Health Reform. [Online]. Available at: https://www.kff.org/uninsured/report/the-uninsured-a-primer-key-facts-about-health-insurance-and-the-uninsured-in-the-era-of-health-reform/
Losen, D. J., & Gillespie, J. (2012). Opportunities suspended: The disparate impact of disciplinary exclusion from school. UCLA: The Civil Rights Project / Proyecto Derechos Civiles.
Lu, M. C., Kotelchuck, M. K., Hogan, V., Jones, L., Wright, K., & Halfon, N. (2015, May 26). Closing the black-white gap in birth outcomes: A life-course approach. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4443479/
Meyer, B. D., & Sullivan, J. X. (2012). Identifying the disadvantaged: Official poverty, consumption poverty, and the new supplemental poverty measure. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 26(3), 111-136.
National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2008). Foundations for success: The final report of the National Mathematics Advisory Panel. U.S. Department of Education.
National Research Council (1995). Measuring poverty: A new approach. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Retrieved from: https://www.nap.edu/read/4759
North Carolina Department of Public Instruction, Office of Accountability and Testing. (2022, July). End-of-Grade Science Test at Grades 5 and 8: North Carolina Test Specifications. https://www.dpi.nc.gov/documents/accountability/testing/eog/eog-science-grades-5-and-8-test-specifications/open
Orfield, G., & Frankenberg, E. (2014). Brown at 60: Great progress, a long retreat, and an uncertain future. The Civil Rights Project/Proyecto Derechos Civiles.
Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon & Schuster.
Rice, J. K. (2010). The Impact of Teacher Experience: Examining the Evidence and Policy Implications. Urban Institute, National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER). Retrieved August 3, 2023, from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED511988.pdf
Rothstein, R. (2017). The color of law: A forgotten history of how our government segregated America. Liveright Publishing.
The Century Foundation. (n.d.). Bridges Collaborative. https://tcf.org/bridges-collaborative/
University of Minnesota. (2019, September 24). Providing culturally sensitive pregnancy care to black women. University of Minnesota. https://twin-cities.umn.edu/news-events/providing-culturally-sensitive-pregnancy-care-black-women
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (2021, April 27). About the atlas. https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas/about-the-atlas/