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THE INTERSECTIONALITY OF BLACK LIFE & BEING

Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, North Carolina — 2023
Kente cloth-inspired website motif

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nkyinkyim (or twisting) represents adaptability, versatility, and the ability to withstand difficulties.

The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols: The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the 16th century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and was only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).

Two men standing in front of artistic photograph.Group of people sitting on couch.Group of young girls sitting on chairs next to each other.
Young woman with basketball in her hand.Child drawing with chalk on the side walk.Artist painting a bench as a man watches.

This project proposes there is the question — who and what is Black? What follows is a consideration of how a limited yet deeply engaged cohort from Winston-Salem/Forsyth County’s (WS/FC) Black community answered this compelling question along with others.

two men posing in front of artistic photographGroup of people sitting on couch
Young boy drawing with chalk on the sidewalkArtist painting a picture of a bench while man observes

This project proposes there is the question — who and what is Black? What follows is a consideration of how a limited yet deeply engaged cohort from Winston-Salem/Forsyth County’s (WS/FC) Black community answered this compelling question along with others.

Who are we talking about when we say Black people? A question that causes any room to thunder with love, passion and pride for being one who is Black. When we say Black do we mean man, woman, male, female, non-binary folk? Are Black people those who are educated, religious, or wealthy? Does being Black mean being an advocate, artist or mentor? Are Black people athletes, survivors, dreamers? Are we Martin’s dreams, Harriet’s feet, Marcus Garvey's flight, Malcolm X’s enlightenment, Ida B. Wells' writings, Oprah Winfrey's interview questions, or Barack Obama’s hope for change? Are we Christian, Muslim or non-religious? The answer, to all of this, is yes! Yes.

Black is love, passion and pride. Black is the intersection of gender, class, sexuality, and religious affiliation. Black is non-binary. Black is education, art and advocacy. Black is active, it sweats and it dreams. Black is fly, it takes flight, runs, enlightens, writes, questions and changes. Black is the intersection of race and every identifier or non-identifier anyone can name. Black is encompassing of all. Black is the ringing alarm of intersectionality that explores its depth. Black is depth. Black culture, Black love, Black church, Black LGBTQ+, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Black businesses, Black dollars, Black art, Black folk … is this Black? Yes!

When we say Black we are talking about those who take steps to make freedom ring. Black people are those who advocate for the caged bird to sing. Black is no limits, no barriers. Ultimately, Black is not a monolith. Black is the quintessential essence of intersectionality - to be Black and … to be the reason intersectionality exists. Black people, the creators, the originators, the blueprint, all there is and all there will be, the push and pull of existing in every way, the beat to this intersectionality dance. Oh, what a joy, to be Black!

— Lové Lemon, 2023
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Intersectionality

Intersectionality is a socio-political concept that offers a lens through which to examine the multiple layers of inequality that affect an individual and how different forms of discrimination interact. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term as a way to help explain the overlapping layers of oppression of African American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Intersectionality, defined by Crenshaw as “a prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other,” recognizes that multiple sources of oppression can disadvantage individuals: their race, socioeconomic class, gender, sexuality, religion, and other identity markers.

Rather than viewing these elements separately, intersectionality examines how these forms of discrimination are interconnected and calls for an analysis of co-occurring and mutually reinforcing forms of inequality. It acknowledges that people's experiences of privilege or oppression are complex and multidimensional and rejects the idea that people's identities can be simplified or divided into separate categories. For example, a person who identifies as a woman of color with a disability would face discrimination unique to the intersection of these specific identities.

Originally, intersectionality centered on feminism, highlighting how women face multiple and varying levels of discrimination. For example, a woman of color who is also a member of the LGBTQ+ community will face more discrimination than a straight white woman. Today, intersectionality has spread beyond feminism to describe how members of marginalized groups can meet stacked inequalities that stem from multiple facets of their identities.

In contemporary academic and social discourse, intersectionality is a lens with which to analyze societal structures and cultural patterns, illuminating dynamics that might not be visible otherwise. It's used in various fields, such as sociology, psychology, politics, gender studies, and more, to deepen the understanding of social inequality and to promote social justice.

Learn more about intersectionality in the glossary.

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"It's not about supplication, it's about power. It's not about asking, it's about demanding. It's not about convincing those who are currently in power, it's about changing the very face of power itself."
— Dr. Kimberlé Crenshaw
Portrait of Dr. Kimberle Crenshaw

THE DANGER OF A SINGLE STORY

LimitationsThis section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants)). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

Ananse Ntontan Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Ananse Ntontan (or Spider’s Web) signifies wisdom, creativity, and the complex nature of life's interconnectedness.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

woman holding sign that says "Teach the Kids Knowledge of Self"

Race, identity, and social narratives are powerful forces that influence our behaviors and attitudes, and shape our lives within communities and society; however, race is not a biologically significant distinction among human beings. Despite visible differences in physical features such as skin color and body shape, there is no evidential basis in genetic research for distinct racial categories. Rather, race is a social construct — a product of societal perceptions and narratives instead of a reflection of genetic reality. Exploration of historical and economic context and scientific attempts to justify racial narratives can shed new light on the influence of race on our collective identities and on the societal and economic ideas that shape interactions and experiences within communities (Race: The Power of an Illusion, 2020).

Through her prolific body of work, Angela Davis — an American political activist, philosopher, academic, and author who has written extensively on the subjects of race, class, and gender — expresses a perspective of race that is shared by many scholars and researchers across the fields of sociology, anthropology, and related disciplines. This perspective acknowledges that race is a social construct with no inherent biological basis, yet it still has profound implications for people's lived experiences and social and economic realities due to how societies structure and react to these constructed racial categories (Davis, 1983). 

"Understanding race as a social construct allows us to challenge and dismantle the systems of oppression that are built upon it."
— Angela Davis
Portrait of Angela Davis

Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, a renowned Nigerian author, presented a TED Talk on "The Danger of a Single Story," where she examined the risks and repercussions of accepting a single, simplified narrative about a culture or a group of people (TED, 2013). Reflecting on her childhood in Nigeria, she observed that her early writing was influenced by the British and American stories she read, thus neglecting her own cultural experiences. She pointed out how powerful entities often control the narratives we see, leading to a narrow and stereotypical understanding of certain cultures, like those in Nsukka, Nigeria (the town where Adichie grew up), being associated only with conflict, poverty, and disease.

Adichie's personal experiences illuminated how these single stories can breed stereotypes, create misunderstandings, and strip people of their dignity by flattening and essentializing their identities. She asserted that a single narrative can dangerously become the only narrative, and thus urged the importance of embracing multiple stories to better comprehend the complexity and richness of the human experience (Miyashiro, 2018).

"Stories matter. Many stories matter. Stories have been used to dispossess and to malign, but stories can also be used to empower and to humanize. Stories can break the dignity of a people, but stories can also repair that broken dignity."
— Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
Portrait of Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie

ABOUT THIS REPORT

This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

The Intersectionality of Black Life and Being is a report on perspectives of the Black community in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County (WS/FC), North Carolina, that was produced using a community-based research (CBR) framework. The defining characteristic of this approach is active involvement, co-leadership, and co-ownership from the very subjects of the report — Black peoples in community as participants in the research process. Commissioned by the Black Philanthropy Initiative of the Winston-Salem Foundation and produced in collaboration by Action4Equity, Forsyth Futures, and a cohort of community-based research participants (Participants), it reflects a commitment to ethical and equitable community engagement, an emphasis on decolonized approaches to research, and an intentional effort to shift and expand who has influence over how research is conducted and used to drive positive change in our community. Unlike similar past studies, the production of this report prioritized collaboration and shared decision making — with research participants’ values, perspectives, attitudes, and lived experiences grounding the process.

This report acknowledges the danger in proposing a single story for a group of people, that culture is not a monolith, and that racial designations are arbitrary social constructions, for which there is no biological basis. Importantly, the stories and ideas shared here represent the perspectives of a limited number of people who participated in the project (about 0.14% of Forsyth County’s Black population). Despite this modest sample size compared to larger surveys, the depth of engagement that unfolded over several months is important to recognize.

"Blackness is not a single story. Blackness is expansive.
Blackness is transcendent.
Blackness is beautiful."
— Solange Knowles
Portrait of Solange Knowles

Recognizing these limitations, this report aims to avoid sweeping generalizations and makes room for the consideration of a broad range of identities and perspectives. The stories shared here are not intended to be taken as broad, sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic.

The perspectives shared in this report, though limited, offer a valuable exploration into the reality of Black life for Participants, and should not be discounted. They provide an honest and clear representation of Participants' experiences that can, hopefully, serve as a springboard for more inclusive and expansive future research into the complexities of Black reality. 

It is recommended that the conversations sparked by this report extend beyond this platform, promoting broader dialogues about the Black reality in WS/FC.

At the direction of Participants, the content of this report was built into an interactive, web-based microsite. A goal of this microsite is to bring together many varieties of content including history, stories, community voices, data, and images, to weave a ‘tapestry’ that is thoughtful, intentional, and conveys the vibrancy of Black cultural abundance in WS/FC. 

Because this microsite uses a variety of content sources and data methods, methodological notes are provided throughout.

Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.
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THE HISTORY OF ADINKRA CLOTH AND SYMBOLS

The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols:
The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the sixteenth century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).

FOREWoRDS

The institutional partners on this report include The Black Philanthropy Initiative (the funder and client), and Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures (vendors who designed the research frame and produced the report in collaboration). Each partner was asked to prepare a foreward to be published with the report to reflect on the content presented and convey each partner’s perspective, positionality, and specific recommendations for action.

Importantly, the forewords stand as independent from the primary body of community-based research and secondary sources. This distinction respects the integrity and research validity of the community-based methodology and provides an opportunity for critical commentary from the project partners without conflating their perspectives with the primary research data.

Action4Equity Foreward ButtonForsyth Futures Foreward Button

BLACK CULTURE

IN WINSTON-SALEM & FORSYTH COUNTY

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Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

"I am America. I am the part you won't recognize. But get used to me. Black, confident, cocky; my name, not yours; my religion, not yours; my goals, my own; get used to me."
— Muhammad Ali
Portrait of Muhammad Ali
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Duafe Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Duafe (or Wooden Comb) symbolizes beauty, cleanliness, and feminine qualities.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Wearing beautiful, natural Black hair is a revolutionary and decolonizing act.

Collage of a variety of Black hairstyles

Recent cases in various countries have revealed a growing issue with policies that discriminate against Black hairstyles in schools and workplaces. This has led to a wave of resistance among Black youth and support from Black Lives Matter. The discrimination targets Black hair textures, treating them as separate from race, and symbolizes a broader anti-Blackness in society.

In some places, like California and Illinois, new laws have been passed to ban hair discrimination. However, these policies reflect a longstanding conflict that dates back to when Afro hairstyles were associated with resistance and nonconformity.

The policing of Black hair is more than just an issue of appearance; it’s connected to a deeper societal problem of racism and an attempt to suppress Black identity and force assimilation into Western standards. It’s a reminder of the ongoing struggles against racial discrimination and the importance of self-affirmation and societal change within the Black community (Norris, 2021).

Picture of Tracee Ellis Ross and Naomi Campbell in 1992

Tracee Ellis Ross and Naomi Campbell in 1992.NEW YORK DAILY NEWS//GETTY IMAGES

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"You're not just one thing; you are everything."
— RuPaul
Portrait of RuPaul

Participants shared that, with institutions like Triad Cultural Arts, National Black Theatre Festival / North Carolina Black Repertory Company, and the Delta Arts Center, along with community-based initiatives such as HUSTLE WS, the Divine Nine organizations of Winston-Salem, and the Happy Hill Neighborhood Association, Winston-Salem and Forsyth County (WS/FC) boast a vibrant Black community that is rich with culture and social capital

These community assets underscore the importance of achieving equity. The Black community has historically faced systemic oppression and discrimination, making the pursuit of liberation critical to ensuring equity and justice. Entities like the Kimberly Park Tennis Association, The Community Mosque of Winston-Salem, and Harvest Market — a SHARE Co-Op Grocery center their activities on community engagement, empowerment, and equitable access to resources and opportunities for Black individuals and communities.

Osram Ne Nsoromma Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Osram Ne Nsoromma (or the Moon and the Star) signifies love, faithfulness, and the power of harmony.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Man holding baby

Moreover, events such as the Annual Easter Egg Hunt and Parade by Exquisite Ladies and Friends, and the Annual Festival and Job Fair by the Southeast Neighborhood Association of Winston-Salem highlight the joy and creativity within the Black community. They prioritize the celebration of Black culture and the empowerment of its members. In a similar vein, groups like Black Girls Do Bike and The Winston-Salem Black Knights Motorcycle Club focus on promoting physical and mental health, raising cultural awareness, and fostering community-building to achieve a sense of identity and solidarity.

In her book, "Winston-Salem’s African American Legacy (Images of America)," Cheryl Streeter Harry presents black and white images of Black residents, business owners, and members of organizations dating as far back as 1872 — including a photo of Ned Lemly, the first homeowner in Happy Hill, who was once enslaved. The book also contains a photograph of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity Inc. members and their wives, serving as a stark reminder: “The limited opportunities that both middle- and low-income African Americans experienced from racial discrimination and segregation bonded them together regardless of social and economic status. African Americans organized through social organizations to take civic action and provide community service advancement of African Americans in Winston-Salem” (Harry, 2013). 

"I would not have you descend into your own dream. I would have you be a conscious citizen of this terrible and beautiful world."
— Ta-Nehisi Coates
Portrait of Ta-Nehisi Coates

In 2019, the City of Winston-Salem established the African American Heritage Committee to further study Black history. This group could potentially provide additional information about the mentioned social organizations for those interested.

Ultimately, considering and fostering a sense of connectivity, identity, and solidarity is crucial for healing divisions within the community — an essential step towards healing the trauma and injustices that stem from oppressive systems designed to undermine Black individuals, families, and culture.

Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.
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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Cultural abundance specifically, is being used in this section as a measure to identify the health and vitality of Black communities. Community members pointed out that limitations in this section included recognizing Black hair and Black fashion as representative of Winston-Salem’s Black culture. Community members also lifted up the role of Black Sorority and Fraternity events such as Juneteenth and Emancipation Day Services, and groups such as TopTeens. They also lifted up the impact of the ‘Big Four’ high schools: Carver High School, Atkins High School, Anderson High School, and Paisley High School. These institutions have played a significant role in providing education to Black students in WS/FC, historically and in the present day.

Youth voice

In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.

What makes our community strong?

What makes our community strong? Winston-Salem has amazing restaurants and fast food places, some for example are: Cookout, Sweet Potatoes (a restaurant). In Winston-Salem, a lot of kids come together through sports, this includes football, swimming, training facilities, and recreation centers. In places like Winston-Salem, education is key whether you are learning what you are being taught in school or learning on your own to increase your knowledge of self. Tutors, cultural center, Black panther party, self conscious (remember being Black) these are just some of the ways Winston-Salem has brought education to the light. In Winston-Salem, we try to find light even in the little things. Here are our expressions of love: Groups like Embedded Mentors Program (EMP), giving back to the homeless, generosity, families that cherish each other, Black people sticking together, and the activities that churches do such as clothing pantries (clothing give away), food pantries (food give away), and direct assistance programs. If you come to Winston-Salem some of the prosperity may attract your eyes such as the nice houses, and fun places to go.

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“I think that as Black Folk, we've always found ways outside of the established methods to maintain our culture. One of the things that the majority of folks have done to us, particularly within education, is they've disconnected our creative chains so that somehow spirituals have no connection to Africa. Somehow blues has no connection to spirituals. Hip-hop comes, and it shows connectivity,”

— said Bryon Turman, a hip-hop professor at N.C. A&T State University (Rojas, 2023)

Woman in a field of sunflowers in a yoga poseGroup of men playing chessgroup of men sitting at a table during a meeting
Two men at a cook outAfrican American Heritage Initiative Committee Meeting Attendees at Adult Coloring Book event

centering the

NARRATIVE

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Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

The narrative that the media tells has made it easy to identify violence and difficult to understand what trauma truly is. Therefore, to begin the healing process, in the context of community and individual, we must recognize that something happened: trauma. [...] Once we have recognized something happened to communities and individuals we can begin the healing process.

— Lové Lemon, 2023
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Epa Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Epa (or Handcuffs) symbolizes slavery, captivity, and the quest for freedom and emancipation.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Community-based research (CBR) aims to amplify community narratives and align them with research practices and policy changes. It puts the voices of those most directly impacted by systems of marginalization and oppression at the center, offering suggestions to shape policies that will benefit the community.

In 2019, the City of Winston-Salem established the African American Heritage Committee to further study Black history. This group could potentially provide additional information about the mentioned social organizations for those interested.

Ultimately, considering and fostering a sense of connectivity, identity, and solidarity is crucial for healing divisions within the community — an essential step towards healing the trauma and injustices that stem from oppressive systems designed to undermine Black individuals, families, and culture.

Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.
"There is no such thing as a single-issue struggle because we do not live single-issue lives."
— Audre Lorde
Portrait of Audre Lorde

COMMUNITY-BASED RESEARCH

Community-based research (CBR) is a collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. It begins with a research topic of importance to the community with the aim of combining knowledge and action for social change to improve the material conditions experienced by people in community. CBR often involves researchers working in partnership with community members, grassroots organizations, and other stakeholders.

Go to the Glossary.

From a cultural perspective, there was a longing to embrace the West African value for the village taking collective responsibility for upbringing, care, love, and mentoring of youth, as well as reverence for and protection of elders (New World Encyclopedia, 2023).

Community members involved in the project expressed a desire for a healthy and vital Black community, pointing to several indicators. First, they defined health not only in the traditional sense but also as a holistic, community-centric practice. This speaks to Black people living and thriving in peace and enjoying physical well-being, alongside food security, mental/spiritual stability, and disease prevention.

Nyame Dua Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nyame Dua (or Tree of God) represents the presence of the divine, spirituality, and sacredness.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

The traditional social and cultural life of West Africans

New World Encyclopedia gives an overview of the social and cultural life of West Africans at the time of the Atlantic slave trade, emphasizing the importance of community and extended family structures. In West Africa, most people lived in hamlets or villages that comprised extended families and clans called lineages. These familial structures, both patrilineal or matrilineal depending on the ethnic group, served as fundamental societal units and acted as mini-governments, especially in stateless societies.

In extended families, nuclear families or polygynous families functioned as economic units, existing in the broader family community composed of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Elders in the extended family held significant power over the economic and social lives of its members, indicating a high level of reverence for elders. This structure allowed for the collective responsibility for upbringing, care, love, and mentoring of youth.

Indigenous West African religions, which were deeply rooted in these societies, involved ceremonies designed to sustain ancestral spirits and their power over the earth, showing a deep respect for elders and the past. These rituals, which included music, dancing, and animal sacrifices, were part of everyday life and often involved active participation from all family members, reinforcing the collective approach to societal responsibilities (New World Encyclopedia, 2023).

Participants also highlighted the necessity for environmental and healing justice. This process involves a community recognizing the trauma brought on by marginalization and the damage caused by the violence of oppression. The community then commits to fostering peaceful reconciliation and transforming systems to provide better opportunities for Black people to thrive.

"There must exist a paradigm, a practical model for social change that includes an understanding of ways to transform consciousness that are linked to efforts to transform structures."
— dr bell hooks
Portrait of dr bell hooks

Healing justice as a process

To initiate healing justice, there must be a deeper understanding of both community and individual violence. Media, in its many forms, has become a tool used to tell the narratives of so many different people from a slanted perspective. This portrayal makes it easy to see violence, yet masks the true nature of trauma. 

To begin the healing process on both a community and individual level, we must acknowledge that something has happened: trauma. Structural, systemic, and institutional violence not only provoke community and individual violence but also push individuals in oppressed communities into subservience and hardship. This environment makes it natural for the spirit to respond — free, running, or tired — a trauma response. Once we acknowledge the trauma experienced by communities and individuals, we can begin the healing process.

Healing is a profound, intentional process of self-awareness, connection, and advocacy. Self-awareness is the individual healing piece, while connection nurtures community healing. Both are necessary to challenge and change structural, systemic, and institutional violence, which forms the advocacy piece. It's only after we've navigated these aspects of healing, particularly the advocacy element, that we can open up more avenues for community and individual healing — in other words, healing injustice. Most crucially, even if structures, systems, and institutions persist in their violent ways because they profit from them, we, who are healed and healers, can still persist in creating more opportunities for both community and individual healing (Lové Lemon, personal communication, June 15, 2023).

Black Panther Party flagMan and woman speaking at podium during an event
woman holding child in group of peoplegroup of people doing yoga outside

Youth Voice

In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.

What does achievement look like to you?

“life is a series of achievements”

What does achievement look like for youth? Who doesn't want to feel fulfilled with who they are? The youth have their whole futures ahead of them, so when asked about what achievement looks like to them, they responded with the steps to fulfillment, which include: learning how to take criticism, avoiding drama, seeing it in your mind, perseverance, focusing on your school work, pulling up your grades, working hard for something, getting a job, making your own money, graduating high school, starting a clothing brand. As the youth reflected on what these steps to fulfillment could make possible, they identified: a sense of accomplishment and acceptance, feeling content with where they are in life and accomplishing their goals.

"Don't you know your imperfections is a blessing?"
— Kendrick Lamar
Portrait of Kendrick Lamar

BLACK LIFE &

EDUCATION

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LimitationsThis section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

"The purpose of education...is to create in a person the ability to look at the world for himself, to make his own decisions."
— James Baldwin
Portrait of James Baldwin

Participants shared that education holds immense cultural value within the local Black community. The findings from the community-based research process underscore this significance and shed light on critical aspects of the education landscape. While the district, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS), is well-resourced ("District Overview: Budget," n.d.) and boasts talented individuals with a commitment to raising achievement, there are nevertheless persistent disparities in academic outcomes for Black students — a condition that should not prevail. 

Nsoromma Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nsoromma (or Child of the Heavens or Star) represents the potential for greatness and reaching one's aspirations.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

CBR participants' experiences and perspectives, along with specific quantitative data, provide insights into crucial areas of concern within education including:

Participants expressed a desire to illuminate the challenges faced and advocate for improvements to create a more equitable and empowering educational environment for the Black community in Forsyth County.

Woman with NC A&T earrings on
Woman hyping up crowd at a pep rally

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools:

WS/FCS is a public school district located in Forsyth County, North Carolina — one of the largest school systems in the state, serving both the city of Winston-Salem and surrounding Forsyth County.

WS/FCS's mission is to provide a high-quality and equitable education that prepares each student to be a responsible citizen and a lifelong learner. It is committed to creating a safe, inclusive, and engaging learning environment where all students can thrive.

WS/FCS operates a number of elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as various specialized programs and schools. The district's student population is diverse, reflecting the racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity of the wider community. 

During the 2022-23 school year, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools' student population was racially and ethnically diverse, with white, non-Hispanic students making up 33.5% of the population, closely followed by Black, non-Hispanic (29.2%), and Hispanic/Latino students (29.1%). Data from the 2021-22 school year shows approximately 21% of the teacher population identified as Black and 72% identified as white. Read more about these demographics on the Data & Tables page.

As with many urban districts in the U.S., WS/FCS faces challenges related to educational equity, including achievement gaps among different student groups, school funding disparities, and the need for culturally responsive education.

The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.

The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.

The Black community values education: Culturally, the value for education has been a cornerstone of the Black community. Community participant perspectives confirm this, as revealed by the findings across the topic of education. Participants noted WS/FCS is a well-resourced district ("District Overview: Budget," n.d.), with talented people — 77.3% of teachers are certified on average and 96.1% have three or more years of experience on average (U.S. News & World Report, n.d.). Additionally, Participants noted that WS/FCS Superintendent, Tricia McManus, is committed to raising achievement. 

“I am really excited to be given the opportunity to continue leading the district,” said Superintendent Tricia McManus in a statement on WS/FCS’s website. “This means the work of improving our underperforming schools, increasing literacy outcomes, improving kindergarten readiness, and focusing on recruitment and retention of high performing staff can continue. In addition, we can move full speed ahead toward implementing the equity-driven components of our strategic plan so that every student experiences a high-quality education in Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools.” 

With a background in various roles in education since 1990, McManus has a proven record of improving underperforming schools. As a principal, she improved a school's grade from F to C and another from C to A. As an assistant superintendent, she increased a school's grade from F to C within a year and decreased the number of schools with D and F grades from 32 to 26 in one year (Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, n.d.).

Therefore, Participants felt that the current disparities in achievement for Black students should not exist.

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“What's ideal for the next five to ten years? I really would like to see the curriculum for black and brown children be raised to a level of standard. I would like to see a shift in focus from behavior to academics. I would like to see a school board that is representative of the demographics of this city and county. I would like to see the district prepare students to participate in this new economy that is developing locally or have the skills to leave this city or state if they so desire. The world is open to everybody now, and I would like to see Black and Brown children prepared to participate in ways of their own choosing.”

— Dr. Willette Nash

Youth Voice

In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.

What does an effective teacher look like?

There were many characteristics the group provided for what an effective teacher looks like.

Effective teachers need to be patient with students because everyone learns differently. The teacher also needs to be non-judgemental because all students are not as outgoing as others, or students may have learning disabilities and are embarrassed; therefore, an effective teacher needs to be able to handle situations like that. An effective teacher needs to be understanding to their students. Showing understanding shows the students that you care about their well-being and success in your class and beyond as they continue on their educational journey. The most important characteristic an effective teacher should have is building a bond with the students, the staff, the family, and the community. The bonds students and teachers have can go a long way. If you are cool and respectful to your teacher, you are more willing to listen to them when situations happen, you are not afraid to ask for help, and most importantly, you trust them. The level of respect is always there, and it is honest and true.

What does achievement in school look like?

Shows how people have helped you, learning to take criticism, accomplishment, and acceptance, and feeling fulfilled with who you are. Exempt from all drama. Accomplishing your goals. Seeing it in your mind, perseverance. Focusing on your school work. Pulling up your grades. Working hard for something. Getting you a job, making your own money, graduating high school - life is a series of achievements. Starting a clothing brand, mutual aid, community building, and sharing resources and networks. Making it to another day. Helping others (“My day isn’t right until I open the door for someone”). It’s the little things that matter. It looks like getting a CDL and owning your own trucking company. Achievement looks like turning negativity into achievement. Being successful, resilience.

FROM THE DATA

Student Achievement

Data from the 2021-2022 school year in Forsyth County, North Carolina, show a noticeable gap in performance between different racial groups in reading, math, and science. From third to eighth grade, 63% of white students were proficient in reading, but only 25% of Black and Hispanic/Latino students were proficient. A similar gap in proficiency was also evident in math, between white students and Black and Hispanic/Latino students. 

Science proficiency (assessed in 5th through 8th grades) were generally better for everyone, but a gap in proficiency was persistent: about 82% of white students were proficient, versus 45% of Black students and 48% of Hispanic/Latino students. 

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

Achievement gaps, school funding, and segregation: Participants reported that education has become disjointed from the quality of life; there is a need to properly address achievement gaps, funding across all county schools, and persistent racial segregation; resulting in part from the construction of North/South Highway 52. This created two distinct communities, East (Black) and West (white) Winston-Salem. The impact of this policy also served to help create deeply entrenched generational poverty, making it virtually intractable. A perspective emerged that access to resources across the district remains disproportionate.

Highway 52: a Physical Dividing Line:

The construction of Highway 52 locally stands as a poignant example of how historical urban planning and transportation policies have contributed to racial segregation and disenfranchisement in American cities. This highway, known as the physical dividing line in Winston-Salem, serves as a barrier that separates predominantly Black communities from predominantly white ones.

During the mid-20th century, a period marked by the development of interstates and major highways, decision-makers often chose to build these transportation projects in low-income and predominantly Black neighborhoods due, in part, to lower property values in these areas, reducing the cost of land acquisition for construction.

However, the placement of such highways had detrimental effects on the affected communities. In the case of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, it led to the displacement of Black residents, destruction of homes and businesses, and fragmentation of established Black neighborhoods. Moreover, the highway's presence effectively cut off these communities from the city's economic, educational, and social resources, contributing to racial and socio-economic segregation. The design of the highway, including limited crossing points, discouraged movement between the predominantly Black and white areas of the city.

In 1948, North Carolina experienced a severe polio outbreak, providing local authorities in Winston-Salem with an opportunity for urban renewal. Utilizing rhetoric that scapegoated poor Black neighborhoods as the source of the disease, city leaders sought to reshape Winston-Salem both physically and mentally. By framing these neighborhoods as a supposed threat to the white way of life, policymakers used terms like "urban renewal," "uplift," and "slum clearance" to justify removing the city's poorest Black residents. 

This process displaced Black communities like Monkey Bottom, The Shakes, and Columbian Heights to pave the way for commercial property, industrial space, and the construction of Highway 52. 

Columbian Heights is the neighborhood immediately surrounding Winston-Salem State University. It was founded by Simon Green Atkins in the 1890s and it was part of his twin vision of promoting Black education and homeownership. During the age of Jim Crow, Columbian Heights was home to many Black professionals: teachers, business owners, firemen, etc. It was a stable Black neighborhood.

The urban renewal policies of this era effectively contributed to racial segregation and the disenfranchisement of Black communities. Highway 52, cutting through East Winston's Black and brown neighborhoods, symbolizes the institutionalization of separate and unequal geography, perpetuating historical disparities in Winston-Salem.

Today, Highway 52 remains a stark symbol of racial segregation within Forsyth County. The predominantly Black neighborhoods on the eastern side of the highway face economic and social challenges, including higher poverty rates, under-resourced schools, and limited access to healthcare facilities. Conversely, the predominantly white neighborhoods on the western side generally enjoy better access to resources and opportunities.

While it is essential to acknowledge that many other factors contribute to these disparities, the role of urban planning decisions, such as the construction of Highway 52, should not be underestimated. They serve as enduring physical manifestations of systemic racism, further entrenching segregation and inequality in the community. Efforts to address these historic injustices are ongoing, but significant challenges remain.

FROM THE DATA

Segregation

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) reflects the racial segregation that's also seen in Forsyth County's neighborhoods. In the 2021-22 school year, about a third of the students in WS/FCS were white and not Hispanic, while around 58% were Black or Hispanic/Latino. 

Despite the diverse student body, many individual schools don't reflect that diversity. Only about 18% of schools can be considered racially balanced (with a difference of 10% or less). On the flip side, a significant number of schools have a high concentration of either Black and Hispanic/Latino students (42%) or white students (5%). This level of segregation can create inequalities, like unbalanced funding and higher poverty rates in certain schools. 

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page

Effective, Culturally-Competent Teachers and Discipline: Participants expressed that the most important educational insight gained from the community-based process was a clearly articulated desire for experienced and effective teachers in schools where Black children learn, reaffirming the strong cultural value placed on education within the Black community of WS/FC.

Schools that educate Black students and engage Black families must grasp how trauma can influence learning. Disparities in discipline practices are notable, with Black students being 4.04 times more likely, and Hispanic/Latino students 2.06 times more likely, to receive out-of-school suspensions compared to their white peers.

FROM THE DATA

Student Discipline

School-based punishments like suspensions interfere with learning by removing students from the classroom. This practice often unfairly impact students of color, creating educational disparities or gaps.

The 'risk ratio' uses statistics to show how likely a student from a specific racial or ethnic group is to receive disruptive forms of discipline compared to white students. 

In the 2021-2022 school year, Black/African American students were over four times as likely, and Hispanic/Latino students were twice as likely, to be suspended from school (through out-of-school suspensions, specifically) compared to white students.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page

Trauma and Student Discipline in Schools:

The historical weight of trauma is deeply interwoven into the everyday lives of Black Americans. This trauma, rooted in the legacies of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, Jim Crow laws, and other racially prejudiced policies, has cascading effects on health, education, housing, and wealth. The modern-day experiences of systemic racism, from microaggressions to blatant racial violence, further compound these traumas. 

As schools develop frameworks for supporting Black students, it is crucial to consider both the historical and contemporary lenses of trauma, emphasizing resilience and healing alongside recognizing these hardships. It is imperative for schools educating Black students to fully grasp the profound influence of trauma on behavior, learning, and overall student well-being. 

Some institutions are beginning to move away from traditional punitive disciplinary measures, which have been shown to yield adverse outcomes like reduced academic success and increased criminal justice engagement, with an evident shift towards more positive discipline strategies. 

Restorative justice practices, social and emotional learning, and positive behavior interventions are becoming more widespread in use to foster an environment of understanding, empathy, and positive behavioral transformation.

The collective impact of teacher effectiveness, skills, and diversity can result in academic underperformance in schools where Black students constitute the majority (Darling-Hammond, Baratz-Snowden, 2007). Participants emphasized the need to redirect the focus in these schools from behavioral issues to academic achievement. By enhancing teacher placement in schools with low academic performance, the emphasis can shift from student behavior towards fostering academic excellence and aligning student preparation with the technological economy of Innovation Quarter. For teachers in local public schools to effectively engage with Black students, they need to deeply understand the concept of culture, as institutional measures of success are different across Black and white communities.

There were concerns that WS/FC does not support local Black college graduates, and cited Innovation Quarter as an example.

FROM THE DATA

 Teacher Effectiveness and Experience

The proficiency and experience of teachers can significantly influence student performance. Evaluations of teacher effectiveness are generally based on five criteria: leadership, ability to create a respectful environment for diverse students, mastery of teaching content, student learning facilitation, and self-reflection on practice — ‘effective teachers’ meet proficiency in all these areas. 

Generally, greater teacher experience does have a positive impact on student performance. Further, the relationship between teacher experience and student performance is multifaceted, with the strongest positive effects seen in the early years of a teacher's career. The impact varies by subject and grade level, and the relationship is more complex in high-poverty settings (Rice, 2010).

In WS/FCS, in the 2019-2020 school year, schools with a higher percentage of white students had a greater percentage of effective and experienced teachers. Conversely, schools with more Black and Hispanic/Latino students had fewer. Although the correlation is weak, it is significant enough to suggest that it isn't a result of random chance. 

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page

"Black parenting is about instilling a deep sense of self-love and pride in our children, reminding them of their worth and potential in a world that often tries to devalue and undermine them." 
— Clint Smith
Portrait of Clint Smith

Advocacy and Engagement

Participants expressed a desire for more culturally-specific educational advocacy organizations, such as the WS/FC Alliance of Black School Educators (WABSE).

The importance of engaging a broad range of diverse voices in decision making was also lifted up. This includes engaging school personnel — from teachers and counselors to bus drivers, custodians, cafeteria workers, and volunteers — in parent and community engagement efforts. Additionally, youth perspectives should be prioritized when making decisions about curriculum and other aspects of their education.

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“This schoolboard tends to respond to the community when it shows up. And so that’s both a positive and a negative because depending upon who shows up, it influences how the board votes.”

— Dr. Willette Nash

Participants expressed that the WS/FCS Board of Education (BOE) tends to be responsive when parents show up as advocates — that they are responsive to their most vocal constituents. However, there is a distinction in how parents show up, with middle class parents showing up differently relative to test scores than parents who work. There is a perspective that the BOE fails to address the needs of Black and Hispanic/Latino students. 

Popular Education

Participants suggested that spaces for popular education exist outside the local public schools to foster academic achievement and provide assets-based, culturally-affirming educational spaces for Black youth. Two important features of such spaces were identified as peer support and allowing Black youth to participate in ways they decide are meaningful.

Popular Education: a Tool for Social Change:

Popular education is a form of education that emphasizes collective, participatory learning as a tool for social change. It differs from traditional education in its approach, which aims to empower learners to critically analyze their personal experiences and the societal structures that shape them. The ultimate goal is to enable individuals and communities to take collective action towards social justice.

Popular education is closely tied to the ideas of Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher who is often credited with founding the popular education movement. In his seminal work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Freire critiqued the "banking model" of education, in which knowledge is "deposited" into passive students. Instead, he argued for a problem-posing approach where learners actively engage with and question the world around them (Freire, 1970; Mayo, 1999; Crowther, Galloway, & Martin, 2005).

Some examples of successful approaches to popular education from across the US include:

  • Freedom Schools: Originating in the 1960s as part of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, Freedom Schools were informal educational programs aimed at fostering political and social consciousness among Black students. They focused on topics often neglected in mainstream curricula, such as African American history and literature. Today, the Children's Defense Fund (based in Washington DC) operates a modern incarnation of Freedom Schools, with a strong emphasis on reading proficiency, social action, and empowerment (Children's Defense Fund, n.d.). Freedom Schools also exist in Forsyth County.
  • The Algebra Project: Founded by civil rights activist and math educator Bob Moses, The Algebra Project is a national U.S. mathematics literacy effort aimed at helping low-income students and students of color achieve mathematical skills that are a prerequisite for a college preparatory mathematics sequence in high school. (The Algebra Project, n.d.)
  • Project-Based Learning (PBL): High Tech High in San Diego, California, is an example of project-based learning that emphasizes real-world applications and student-centered learning and skills. The school is guided by four ‘connected design principles’ that set aspirational goals and create a foundation for understanding their approach: Equity, Personalization, Authentic Work, and Collaborative design. (High Tech High, n.d.)

Go to the Glossary.

Participants noted that local examples of such popular education opportunities include Island Culturez and Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentor Program.

Young woman speaking to crowd at an eventGroup of young girls with older womanGroup of women at an event
Family portraitTwo childrendesign elementGroup of 3 young women at an event
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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

During the community meeting, participants identified several limitations in the section under discussion. These limitations included the lack of emphasis on important topics such as the limited availability of affordable childcare and its impact on the community. Additionally, community members highlighted the significance of addressing the school-to-prison pipeline and the need for programs or groups that positively influence the lives of Black children from as early as 3rd grade. Furthermore, there was a call for a greater focus on trauma resiliency and investing in alternative solutions to promote educational prosperity. These insights from community members underscored the importance of addressing these critical issues within the broader context of the report.

IMPACT OF THE

LOCAL ECONOMY

design element

LimitationsThis section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

"It is ironic that America, with its history of injustice to the poor, especially the black man and the Indian, prides itself on being a Christian nation."
— James H. Cone
Portrait of James H. Cone

Life in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County presents both challenges and opportunities for Black residents. Findings on the theme of the local economy indicate several areas of Participants’ concern around economic development and growth: 

  1. accessibility
  2. safety nets
  3. revenue
  4. cooperation
  5. entrenched historical dynamics
  6. economic shifts in terms of employment

Participants expressed concern that Innovation Quarter is not in service of Black residents, consistent with the findings on education and how Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) prepares Black students to matriculate into post-secondary education and the local economy writ large. Within this dynamic, there is little support for Black entrepreneurship, along with a limited number of programs to apprentice entrepreneurs. The ones that are available were viewed as lacking sustainability by Participants. 

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“We're going to remind you this is where we belong. It's a reason why Juneteenth is held in this space, because this is our community, okay? Whether you like it or not, building all these pretty buildings. Cute. But let's talk history. Okay?”

— Magalie Yacinthe

Participants felt that jobs that pay 45-65K are insufficient as livable income when considering the current inflation rate — rent has increased by as much as 60% for some rental properties (Sterling, 2022). Competition from an influx of transplants from outside the community poses challenges in finding employment. Overall, there has been a decline in economic mobility in the last 50 years which has contributed to an increase in the wealth gap. It was noted that dollars from the Black community circulate in less than six minutes (Black Wall Street Forward, 2023). 

Participants characterized these as examples of how Black peoples in WS/FC are bouncing back from a tobacco-driven economy in which R.J. Reynolds provided jobs with a living wage, and opportunities for increasing homeownership for Black employees (Reynolds Town). Those who were  employed by the company benefited from on-the-job training, so there was no need to obtain a high school diploma.

Economic Mobility in the United States:

Economic mobility in the United States, particularly upward mobility, has been on a decline over the past few decades. Upward mobility refers to the ability of an individual or family to improve their economic status within their lifetime or from one generation to the next. This decline in mobility has had significant implications for the overall wealth and income disparity in the country, and the impact has been especially pronounced for Black communities.

In the U.S., wealth has been highly concentrated among white households, which on average hold about six times as much wealth as Black households. A number of factors contribute to this disparity, including systemic racism, discriminatory housing policies, unequal educational opportunities, and labor market discrimination.

Systemic racism and discriminatory policies like redlining have historically limited Black families' access to wealth-building opportunities like homeownership. For example, the Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing, was only enacted in 1968, and the effects of decades of legal housing discrimination continue to be felt today. Due to these and other factors, Black households are less likely to own their homes compared to white households, limiting their opportunities to build wealth.

Inequality in education further contributes to the decline in economic mobility for Black communities. Schools with predominantly Black student populations tend to have fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, and lower overall funding than schools serving mainly white students. This can affect the quality of education and limit the opportunities for students from these schools, leading to lower earnings in adulthood.

The impact of labor market discrimination should also not be underestimated. Studies have shown that Black individuals are often paid less than their white counterparts for doing the same jobs and are less likely to be hired for certain positions or promoted within a company.

Read more in the glossary.

FROM THE DATA

median income

According to data from the 2021 American Community Survey, there are noticeable differences in income among full-time workers (people working 30 or more hours a week for 52 weeks a year) between the ages of 25 and 64. Workers who are white and not Hispanic tend to make more money than their Black and Hispanic counterparts with the same level of education.

Median income provides a way to examine this by identifying the middle point of all incomes, meaning half of people earn more than this amount and half earn less.

Specifically, the median income for white, non-Hispanic workers is $57,676. This is much higher than the median incomes of $36,047 for Black, non-Hispanic workers and $39,137 for Hispanic workers. This gap continues among college graduates, with white, non-Hispanic workers earning a median income of $67,975, compared to $51,496 for Black, non-Hispanic workers and $41,197 for Hispanic workers.

Among those without a college degree, Black, non-Hispanic workers have the lowest median income at $25,954. This is much lower than the median incomes of $42,227 for white, non-Hispanic workers and $36,150 for Hispanic workers.

These numbers highlight that income disparities along racial and ethnic lines still exist, even when education levels are taken into account.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

income Insufficiency

Income insufficiency is a way to measure if a household's income is enough to cover their estimated expenses. This measure, created by Forsyth Futures, takes into account the size of the household, where they live, and how their expenses change over time. This approach is different from traditional ways of calculating poverty rates, which may not accurately show the level of financial hardship faced by families because they are based on assumptions that are too general to be reliable. To calculate income insufficiency, the method starts with figuring out the lowest expenses a household is likely to have. Then it works out what percentage of people earning less than this amount. The goal is to get a better understanding of who is facing financial hardship.

The results show significant disparities between racial and ethnic groups. In 2021, 38% of Black and 36% of Hispanic/Latino residents in Forsyth County didn't have enough income to cover their estimated expenses compared to 20% of white residents.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

transportation

The American Community Survey (ACS) gathered Forsyth County data on how people 16 and older, who have jobs, get to work and how long it takes them. Respondents were asked, "What method of transportation did you usually use to get to work last week?" and "How long did it usually take you to get from home to work last week?"

The ACS data reveal that the time it took to commute to work didn't differ much between racial and ethnic groups. 

However, there were noticeable differences in the means of transport. Most Hispanic/Latino residents, about 90%, drive to work in a car, truck, or van, compared to 79% of white residents. Fewer than 5% of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and white residents reported using a method of transportation that isn't a car, truck, or van for their commute.

Regarding remote work, ACS data showed that 19% of white, non-Hispanic residents in Forsyth County work from home, compared to 12% of Black, non-Hispanic residents and 9% of Hispanic/Latino residents.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

When taken together, Participants expressed that these challenges are exacerbated by a lack of transportation which could provide accessibility to jobs outside of Winston-Salem proper, along with the need for more affordable child care to provide parents the opportunity to work.

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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Community members emphasized the significance of incorporating Minority and Women Owned Business Enterprise representation in fields such as construction and various subcontractor trades. To better understand the ecosystem and identify potential barriers and gaps, there should be further collaboration and research with Black-owned businesses.

Sovereign ECONOMIES & BLACK

ENTREPRENEURSHIP

design element

LimitationsThis section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

"No need to fix what God already put his paintbrush on."
— J. Cole
Portrait of J. Cole

Participants lifted up Island CulturZ as a case study of a sovereign, self-sustaining economy that arose in an area called ‘Da Island’ in response to being pushed out by the original construction of Highway 52, then finally closed off by the renovation of Salem and Research Parkways. In response, the community has become just one example of cooperative economics or shared wealth and work as “a commitment to the practice of shared social wealth and the work necessary to achieve it” and as “a sharing of wealth and work in the manner of a family.” This concept is based on the assumption that the well-being of community is “best achieved in the context of shared social wealth.” (Karenga, 1996). 

Participants noted this approach as similar to the ways white and Latino communities pull together to share resources and create economic viability. It is a community nestled in East Winston, defined historically through Mohommed Herb’s “Back To School Block Party,” whereas the participation of the students was limited to neighborhood kids from Maryland Avenue back to South Gate, over to New Walkertown Road and on the North side of Business 40. The circumscribed area has been tweaked a bit to include Skyland Field and Park, as this is defined by their community’s interests. 

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"One of the reasons why we would call ourselves an island is because they blocked off our street. It came directly into our community off of Martin Luther King Drive. They put in the highway exit, and that very much prohibited people from coming in and shopping at Herb's Bargains, which is a corner store, like the last black-owned corner store in the city and also kept them from coming to our park. So these are two locations that we're looking to put into a land trust and really put in communities control.”

— Michael banner

Mohommed Herb is an elder who exemplifies an entrepreneurial spirit as he models the self-reliance and resilience that Participants deeply value on Da Island. Historically, he’s been referred to as a “green tree amongst the withered.” That adage has been revamped and he’s now referred to as a “green tree amongst the emerging,” taking into account the many successful businesses and entrepreneurs that have sprung up who name “Herb” as their inspiration. 

From Herb’s “Get Paid For A’s Program” and “Back2School Block Party,” Da Island  designated a boundary around the initiative of building intentional community, setting a precedent around generating generational wealth with neighborhood agriculture

Man signing paper supporting Island Culturez.
Group posting with banner that says "Resisting the Status Quo & Building Liberation"
Bese Saka Adinkra symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Bese Saka (or sack of cola nuts) symbolizes abundance, affluence, and the importance of planning and agriculture.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Participants also discussed Venture Café — a community-based non-profit organization that has served as a vehicle for Black entrepreneurs to network, grow, and develop their businesses.

Now, however, Participants noted that WS/FC functions as a more highly-skilled research, science, technology, engineering, and math economy. In response, some in the Black community are reinventing themselves to meet both the challenges and opportunities presented by this shift; alongside an understanding that the economic health of white communities looks different than that of Black communities. Participants noted that in Black WS/FC, income is generated through shops, churches, homeless and mental health shelters, human resources, intellectual property, agriculture, trades, goods and services — each of these representative of the values of cooperative economics, spiritual/servant leadership, and collective work and responsibility that has, over time, defined and sustained Black culture.

Two people in local Black-owned storetwo young girls at table with fresh produce
group of people near train tracksMan posting with watermelon, green beans, and other fresh produce

Youth Voice

In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.

What are our community’s barriers?

“Being in Winston-Salem is like being in a war”

There is always something holding the community back. The youth pointed to the following factors: lack of knowledge, crimes, violence, talking, lack of communication, lack of picking up trash, lack of love and understanding, gangs, and lack of self-actualization. The youth also discussed the challenges of being Black in this city, including becoming involved with the law and the justice system, being victimized by the police, and racism. College tuition is too high. There is not enough access to scholarships, which led to a conversation about how the military can create opportunities for college.

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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Community members emphasized the significance of the Black Community in Winston-Salem/Forsyth County taking collective action and utilizing research to develop solutions for shared challenges. They expressed concern regarding the historical dependence on external assistance, which often results in inadequate solutions. In particular, they highlighted the importance of recognizing agriculture as a fundamental human right and its potential to restore value and economic prosperity within the community.

A PLACE TO

call home

design element

This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

"You can't lead the people if you don't love the people. You can't save the people if you don't serve the people."
— Dr. Cornel West
Portrait of Dr. Cornel West

Participants acknowledged that Highway 52 created a north/south divide that split Winston-Salem into two separate cities, east and west Winston, along racial lines. For a time, Black people were prohibited from buying property on the west side of the city (Herbin-Triant, 2019) and today homes in West Winston-Salem are four times the value as homes in East Winston-Salem (Forsyth County Neighborhood Opportunity Atlas, 2021). By contrast, East Winston-Salem has fewer owner-occupied homes (Forsyth County Neighborhood Opportunity Atlas, 2021) and an ever-increasing decline in housing quality, with many residential properties being acquired as income properties instead of investment properties. A housing study and needs assessment for Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, published in 2018, states that, “With a significant housing stock that is aging, explicit focus on rehabilitation of vacant, historic and aging units may present a strategic opportunity to help meet projected new housing demand over the next 10 years (Enterprise Community Partners, Inc., 2018).

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"We're trying to transition our economy, and we left some people behind, and most of those people are Black people. And when we built highway 52, once again, this is a story across the country. It's not just here, but 52 did that here. And every time I drive down 52, I want to cry, because you can see the wealth gap, how big it is…Then you go cross over MLK, still going down Fifth Street you're going to see these pockets of communities that used to be thriving, Black communities. They're not anymore. And there's disinvestment there. And because of the politics of politics.”

— Nakida Mcdaniel

Participants noted that the impact of this dynamic can be seen in trauma for youth who live in substandard, dilapidated housing — giving rise to fear, violence, and quality of life that is not conducive to cultural, spiritual, mental or emotional health.

Akoma Adinkra symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Akoma (or Heart) symbolizes patience, goodwill, tolerance, and understanding.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Participants further identified that the struggle for Black residents in East Winston-Salem is one of gentrification, an example of which can be seen east of Research Parkway, along Fifth Street. Other challenges lifted up by Participants, relative to housing and homeownership, include housing affordability, discrimination in lending and interest rates, access to credit, and education on the homeownership process.   

"Sometimes you need to get knocked down before you can really figure out what your fight is and how you need to fight it."
— Chadwick Boseman
Portrait of Chadwick Boseman

Elizabeth A. Herbin-Triant: Winston-Salem’s Residential Segregation History

This op-ed, published in the Winston-Salem Journal in 2019, delves into the historical context of residential segregation in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, shedding light on the lasting consequences faced by marginalized communities today. Focusing on the division caused by U.S. 52, the piece explores the stark contrast between a thriving downtown and an impoverished majority-Black neighborhood. It traces the roots of intentional segregation back to the early 20th century, where discriminatory ordinances sought to keep Black people out of white neighborhoods. Despite legal challenges, subsequent efforts to maintain segregation persisted, including zoning ordinances and the Home Owners Loan Corporation's discriminatory practices (sometimes called ‘redlining’). 

The article further highlights the impact of redevelopment (or ‘urban renewal’) projects that displaced Black neighborhoods, leaving a legacy of inequality and limited access to resources. However, amidst these challenges, the op-ed emphasizes the optimism and determination of individuals working to address past injustices and empower the residents of East Winston.

Read the Article

Participants expressed that Winston-Salem is in dire need of housing that is affordable, with a shortfall of 16,244 affordable units (City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, n.d.). As stated earlier in the section on resilience and the local economy, rents have increased by up to 60% on some properties due to inflation (Sterling, 2022).

The City of Winston-Salem has decided there is a need to address these economic gaps, with a plan to invest 30 million dollars over the next 10 years to build 750 homes per year (see sources cited in the Local Efforts to Expand Affordable Housing section below).

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Local Efforts to Expand Affordable Housing

The State of Affordable Housing — “According to a comprehensive 2018 study, commissioned to better understand the state of housing affordability in our community, fewer than half of all rental units in Winston-Salem are affordable to families earning 80% of AMI or less. This has resulted in a shortage of more than 16,000 affordable homes (City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, n.d.).”

In the context of housing affordability, "AMI" stands for "Area Median Income." It is a measure used by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to determine income eligibility criteria for various housing programs.

When the statement says "fewer than half of all rental units in Winston-Salem are affordable to families earning 80% of AMI or less," it means that many rental units in the area are too expensive for families earning 80% (or less) of the local median income. In essence, a significant portion of the community in Winston-Salem is priced out of many available housing options.

The City’s Commitment — Winston-Salem has made a commitment to provide 750 units of affordable housing annually over the coming decade. The city council recently approved $30 million to support the creation of affordable housing within the city. The source of this funding is a mix of $10 million from the N.C. General Assembly and $20 million from the city's general fund. This decision was made possible after the city identified a method to utilize a significant portion of federal stimulus money, received through the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA), to cover police salaries. As a result, money from the general fund was freed up for affordable housing, granting the city more flexibility in how it is spent (Young, 2022).

The Choice Neighborhood Initiative Project — The City of Winston-Salem and the Housing Authority of Winston-Salem (HAWS) have partnered on the Choice Neighborhood Initiative Project, with initial funding provided through a $30 million grant from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). This initiative aims to revitalize the Northeast community of Winston-Salem with an estimated total price tag $750 million to realize the project’s full vision (Winston-Salem Choice Neighborhood, 2023). 

The project is located in the Cleveland Avenue neighborhood. Its first phase focuses on creating a multi-level apartment complex, intending to serve around 80 families. The HAWS has stated that the project will make a commitment to maintain current rental rates for residents (Pierce, 2022).

The Choice Neighborhoods Program includes plans to convert the 244-unit Cleveland Avenue Homes public housing into 406 mixed-income housing units at two separate neighborhood sites. (Winston-Salem Choice Neighborhood, 2023). Though significant funding has been secured and the project is well underway, it is still unclear from the sources cited how the total project price tag of $750 million will be funded.

In February, 2023, city council approved renovations for apartments at 1200 Willie Davis Drive and 1635 N. Cleveland Ave (part of the Choice Neighborhoods Initiative area) with a budget of up to $750,000. Initially, residents of these city-owned affordable housing units were asked to vacate for renovations, but they were allowed to stay in place after community pushback. The council approved 1-year lease extensions for the residents at their current rates and extended the contract with the current property management company. There is ongoing debate about the city's long-term plan for these properties, including whether they should remain city-owned or be sold. Dan Rose, an advocate from Housing Justice Now, emphasized the concerns, stating, “The biggest problem of all is that you’re not talking to the residents (Melcher, 2023).”

In April, 2023, press release from US Congresswoman Kathy Manning from North Carolina's sixth district states that she has secured a $5 million federal grant to go toward the project (Manning, 2023).

The Flats at Peter’s Creek — A prospective affordable housing project is in the works on Peters Creek Parkway, previously the site of the Budget Inn. This initiative is a collaborative effort between private developers, nonprofits, and the city. The goal is to construct 62 income-based rental units where households earning no more than 60% of the area's median income will qualify. The city has approved $500,000 in gap financing for the project, but developers are still awaiting tax credits from the North Carolina Housing Finance Agency to proceed (Brown, 2022).

Crystal Towers — Crystal Towers, a 200-unit affordable housing structure in Winston-Salem that was built in the 1960’s has experienced severe deterioration in recent years, with residents raising concerns about the living conditions and affordable housing advocates urging the city to allocate funds from its ARPA stimulus money to pay for the necessary repairs, initially estimated at $7 million. The Housing Authority of Winston-Salem (HAWS) indicated an intention to sell Crystal Towers due to the steep costs associated with its maintenance, which was met with concern and resistance from tenants and advocates (Hewlett, 2021).

On January 18th, HAWS announced that Crystal Towers would not be sold — with tenants and advocates celebrating the decision as a major win for affordable housing. This decision follows years of uncertainty surrounding the fate of the building. 

Additionally, HAWS has committed to a significant $10 million renovation of Crystal Towers. Renovation plans included the replacement of two malfunctioning elevators, which is a top priority for disabled tenants. Funding for these renovations will mainly come from the Housing Authority, supplemented by city funds sourced from federal COVID-19 relief dollars. Additionally, plans were also supposed to include work on a floor-by-floor basis, updating plumbing and electrical systems, and upgrades like painting and replacing carpets. 

Tenants and advocacy group Housing Justice Now (HJN) played a key role in preventing the sale and securing the commitment for renovations, having petitioned the city to refrain from selling the building. This tenant-led initiative, including a petition signed by the majority of the building's residents and approximately 2,000 community members, was foundational in reversing the decision. Now, HJN continues to fight alongside residents of Crystal Towers for the repairs that were promised to the residents two years ago. Samuel Grier, a tenant of Crystal Towers and advocate with HJN said, “We will be watching. We’re going to be vocal. We don’t want no wool pulled over our heads. We want results. We gonna get our results (Denyer, 2022; Zelniker, 2022).”

As of September, 2023, despite public commitment to this $10 million renovation plan to repair Crystal Towers by Mayor Allen Joines and the HAWS, these repairs and improvements have not been made. Tenants, including elderly and disabled people, are still without working elevators in addition to continued deterioration of the building as maintenance and upkeep have been neglected. “I remember being in a meeting with (former executive director) Larry Woods in 2018 where he promised that the elevators would be fixed,” said Dan Rose, a community organizer with Housing Justice Now (HJN) advocacy group. “That’s five years ago. And yet here we are.” (Sexton, 2023) On September 12, 2023 HJN held a rally in Solidarity with Crystal Towers United to demand expedited repairs, city funding, and a voice in the process.

Union Cross Road Property Sale — The city recently approved the sale of a 72-acre property on Union Cross Road to Front Street Capital for $8 million. While some council members, including D.D. Adams, suggesting using the proceeds for affordable housing, others believe the money could be utilized for different economic development projects (Young, 2022).

The City's Affordable Housing Development (AHD) program — A city program is encouraging the expansion of affordable housing. It is open to both non-profit and for-profit developers, offering various forms of financial assistance for affordable housing development projects. To qualify, projects must guarantee at least 30 years of affordability, with a strong preference for projects that pool multiple funding sources, provide rental assistance, and collaborate with local service groups (Community Development Department, City of Winston-Salem, n.d.).

Editor’s note — The local housing projects and opportunities described above represent what staff researchers were able to find in the public domain with a limited time budget — this list is exemplary and by no means exhaustive.

The need for a comprehensive housing strategy and approach to affordable housing was identified by Participants as well as the need for widespread community collaboration in order for progress to be made.

It was further mentioned that the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) of 1977, which mandates that banks assist in community development, represents a major potential funding source that has been underutilized locally (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 2022). Truist Bank was named specifically for having significant investment funds set aside for affordable housing — and that other banks likely have similar funds (North Carolina Housing Coalition, 2021).

Further, the creation of a community equity fund was recommended to enable community members to invest in addressing the housing problem, making them both investors and beneficiaries of the outcome. Lastly, the potential for local investment opportunities that may be possible, specific to North Carolina's laws relevant to the US Security and Exchange Commission (SEC), was lifted up as important to explore.

"The city's allocation of $30 million for affordable housing is a start in the right direction, but as we know that amount is a drop in the bucket as it relates to the need in our community. Our housing crisis is with people whose incomes do not exceed the federal poverty level of 80% of the area median income and who are sometimes paying more than 50% of their income for housing. We can do better as a city and should look to other cities that are outpacing us in affordable housing development and are allocating hundreds of millions of dollars. Affordable housing should be our number 1 priority in this city.  Almost every social determinant of health is connected to housing. We have a history of disinvestment in our low-income neighborhoods.  We must break this cycle if we want some sense of equity in neighborhoods that are most in need!” — Paula McCoy

From the data

Housing Cost Burden

When a lot of a family's income goes towards housing costs, like rent or a mortgage, they have less money for other essentials like food, medical care, and transportation. This can lead to financial stress and hardship. One way to measure this is to look at housing costs as a portion of a family's income. If a family spends more than 30% of their income on housing costs (including things like utility bills, property taxes, insurance, and other related costs), they are considered to be ‘housing cost burdened.’

In WS/FC, there's a racial divide when it comes to being housing cost burdened. About 37% of white, non-Hispanic residents spend over 30% of their income on housing, compared to 41% of both Black, non-Hispanic residents and Hispanic/Latino residents.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

homeownership

The homeownership rate tells us what percentage of people live in a home they own. Owning assets like a home, a savings account, investments, or even a car can offer a safety net against unforeseen expenses, reducing the chances of falling into poverty. Although homeownership rates don't give us a picture of a person's total wealth or the actual value of their homes, they do show us who owns a valuable asset, which can provide financial stability. 

Looking at the data from Forsyth County, we find that 77% of non-Hispanic, white residents live in a home owned by someone in their household. However, the figures are lower for non-Hispanic, Black residents and Hispanic/Latino residents, with only 56% and 55% respectively living in a home owned by someone in their household.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

property values

A property value is the amount of money someone is willing to pay for a home or a piece of land. When people take the American Community Survey (ACS), they're asked to estimate how much they think their property would sell for if it were on the market. While this estimate is subjective and based on the person's opinion, it still provides a fair representation of property values in Forsyth County.

When it comes to property values, there's a difference based on race. The typical or ‘median’ value of homes owned by white, non-Hispanic individuals is $225,000. For homes owned by Black, non-Hispanic individuals, the median value is lower, at $190,000. The ‘median’ is the middle value in a list of numbers, where half the numbers are above it and half are below it.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Community members brought attention to essential opportunities related to housing that were not adequately highlighted in the report, specifically emphasizing the need for a fair and equitable assessment of houses in East Winston-Salem. Additionally, community members pointed out the potential for reusing dilapidated and abandoned housing by developing them into land trusts, thereby allowing those most affected to have a say in their transformation into affordable housing. These insights from the community underscored the significance of addressing these opportunities within the broader context of housing in WS/FC.

COLLECTIVE WORK &

RESPONSIBILITY

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This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

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Collective work and responsibility, often referred to as ‘Ujima’ or ‘active and informed togetherness in matters of common interest,’ is a recognition and respect for the fact that, without collective work and struggle, progress is impossible and liberation is unthinkable. It supports the assumption that ‘African’ is not merely an identity, but a destiny, a duty, a responsibility. Our collective identity in the long is a collective future. As a result, there as need for us as self conscious and committed people to shape our future with our own minds and hands and share the struggle together

(Karenga, 2016)

Participants expressed that Black people in WS/FC enjoy a rich cultural heritage. They share a common history, stories of resistance and resilience, and cultural ways of knowing and being that are built upon a value for community. There are stories of creativity, ingenuity, industry, resistance, and success. There is a history of organizing in an effort to advance their interests and effect change. 

"Darkness cannot drive out darkness; only light can do that. Hate cannot drive out hate; only love can do that."
— Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Portrait of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

Locally, community groups organized to advocate for Black history to be taught in schools so that all people understand the profound legacy and contributions of Black peoples throughout the diaspora, Participants noted. Some sought the inclusion of financial literacy classes in the public school curriculum so that youth may learn to break the bonds of poverty and build wealth, as well as participate in transforming the local economy to be more inclusive.

The Importance of Teaching Black History to Black Students

Teaching Black history to Black students is of vital importance for several reasons. One of the primary reasons is representation. When students learn about historical figures and events that reflect their own identity, they can feel more seen, acknowledged, and valued, which can contribute to a more positive self-image and stronger sense of identity.

Additionally, Black history is full of narratives of resilience, resistance, innovation, and accomplishment in the face of immense odds. Knowledge of these narratives can instill a sense of pride, inspire ambition, and empower Black students to overcome their own challenges.

Furthermore, studying Black history offers a fuller, more accurate depiction of history, prompting critical thinking about systemic issues such as racism and social justice. A deeper understanding of historical context can illuminate the roots of present-day disparities and conflicts, providing students with a broader perspective.

Finally, gaining knowledge of one's cultural heritage and understanding diverse perspectives can enhance cultural competency. This understanding fosters respect and empathy for differing experiences and viewpoints, fostering an inclusive environment (Banks, 1993; King, 1991; Woodson, 1933).

“Children make the best theorists, since they have not yet been educated into accepting our routine social practices as "natural," and so insist on posing to those practices the most embarrassingly general and fundamental questions, regarding them with a wondering estrangement which we adults have long forgotten. Since they do not yet grasp 'our social practices as inevitable, they do not see why we might not do things differently (hooks, 1994).” 

Adinkrahene Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Adinkrahene (or Chief of the Adinkra symbols) represents greatness, charisma, and leadership.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Youth Voice

In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.

What is black curriculum and how does it make a difference? The group stated that it was a way for black students to learn about their people, their history, and culture.

“A Black curriculum is like the class I took at Parkland taught by one of the tutors at our program which was African American studies. A class like this allows us to learn the truth about our place in American history. A lot of the time when we have history class it focuses on the same people like Martin Luther King or Harriet Tubman or they just want to talk about slavery (only the good parts if there are any). Instead of just having a month to learn and talk about it, we have a whole class that lasts two quarters and we can learn about the origins of Africa to present times. 

A class like this will always be beneficial to students of color because it gives them a chance to get answers to questions they have. They get to learn about stuff they may have never known about. Finally, we learn information that we can share with our family and friends, and this might encourage them to learn more about our history and the impact we made and are still making in society today.”

Participants highlighted that alternatives to the science, technology, engineering, math, and arts economy are being explored to provide new, more independent opportunities — ventures to further promote economic development, such as cutting grass, plowing snow, and raking leaves. These activities were noted to have long provided supplemental, seasonal, and entrepreneurial income — they are a part of the legacy of Black peoples and represent sustainable, year-round ventures. 

two children playing chess
Group of teenagers doing interactive activityFamily photo

Beyond the Conventional Local Economy

Participants emphasized a shift from traditional roles in science, technology, engineering, math, and arts to more grassroots and immediate ventures. They highlighted activities like cutting grass, plowing snow, and raking leaves as demonstrating real opportunities that are more independent and locally grounded. This emphasis furthers the economic development of the Black community through self-reliant and entrepreneurial avenues.

A Comparative Look: The Underground Economy of Maquis Park

Sudhir Venkatesh's "Off the Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor" offers a vivid perspective of a similar trend in a different context. The book chronicles the intricate workings of Maquis Park, a poor Black community in Chicago's Southside. Here, unregulated, untaxed, and unreported jobs forms the crux of a thriving ‘underground’ economy. This isn't the economy of high tech or corporate ladders, but of day-to-day survival: women who cater local lunches, mechanics working out of back alleys, and even salons doubling as gambling joints in the evenings. These activities, though absent in formal records, are essential to the community's survival.

Much like the insights from Winston-Salem, Venkatesh's observations underscore the interconnectedness and reliance within the community. Every member, whether a street vendor or a mediator, is a crucial thread in the intricate web. Their work, driven by grit and innovation, is not just about earning a living, but also about communal solidarity and resilience.

Like Maquis Park residents, the WS/FC community isn't merely seeking to earn pay, but to foster community solidarity, resilience, and a sense of self-reliance. The community is able to chart its own course, independent of conventional economic structures, echoing the sentiments of countless other communities like Maquis Park across America (Venkatesh, 2009). 

Participants expressed a perception of unionism as illegal in Winston-Salem and noted that this has not deterred the Black community from forming spaces of community building to craft solutions to the problems resulting from marginalization within the local economy. 

Editor’s note: Participants expressed a perception that unionism is illegal, but the legality of unionsim and associated legal barriers are more complex. North Carolina's right-to-work law, ratified in 1947, greatly limits the power of labor unions in the state. The statute makes ‘closed shops’ illegal (when union membership is a condition of being hired as well as of continued employment). Some also believe right-to-work laws weaken labor unions, depress wages, and lead to more unsafe workplaces. Additionally, it's illegal for local government entities to have union agreements for public employees, meaning public workers don't have the same collective bargaining rights as private sector employees. So while unions are not expressly illegal, they are in some cases, and limitations to unionism exist (Williams, 2006).

Dwennimmen Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Dwennimmen (or Ram’s Horns) symbolizes strength, humility, and the importance of being humble despite power.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

Participants expressed a desire to maintain the value of collective work and responsibility by developing coalitions that protect, defend, and support Black lives and Black economic mobility. Participants advanced community organizing as a tool for responding to the needs of Black people in WS/FC in particular. Further, participants lifted up two specific needs:

  • the need to resist the tendency for outsiders and self-interested individuals to exploit poor Black neighborhoods for gain, and
  • to demand accountability for how dollars are spent towards impacting positive change.

Civic Synergy — Community Participation Can Shape Effective Investment

The American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) is a U.S. economic stimulus bill passed in 2021 to speed up the country's recovery from the economic and health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. It provided funding to states, municipalities, and local governments to be used in a variety of ways, including infrastructure, public health, education, and more. Some municipalities have sought community input on how these funds should be spent, recognizing the importance of participatory budgeting and ensuring that investments are aligned with community needs.

The American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) was signed into law in March, 2021. It allocated $350 billion to eligible state, local, territorial, and Tribal governments. Of this amount, Forsyth County received approximately $74 million. 

To figure out how to use the funds, Forsyth County Commissioners initiated public application processes, inviting local agencies and internal County Departments to submit funding requests. According to its website, the County sought resident input on July 1, 2021 — it is not clear from the website what this public input process looked like. 

Participatory budgeting (PB) is a democratic process that empowers community members to decide directly on allocation of public funds and budgets. First introduced in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 1989 as a strategy to tackle poverty—which subsequently led to a nearly 20% reduction in child mortality—PB has expanded its reach to over 7,000 cities worldwide. It has been implemented across various entities, including states, counties, cities, housing authorities, schools, and other institutions. Described by The New York Times as “revolutionary civics in action,” PB deepens democracy, nurtures stronger connections, and increases the equitable distribution of public resources, emerging as a vital tool for informed decision-making, and helping to ensure investments are aligned with the genuine needs of community peoples. This is especially relevant in the context of the distribution of ARPA funds.

US cities like Omaha and Tulsa have taken significant steps to involve their communities in decision-making processes. Omaha has prioritized increasing transparency and allowing greater community involvement in its budgeting. Tulsa has launched several initiatives to enhance community engagement. The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Centennial Commission tells the story of the city's past and works to revitalize the Greenwood District, known historically as ‘Black Wall Street’. The Gathering Place, a community park, embodies Tulsa's commitment to spaces designed foster unity. And an initiative called Educare directly addresses early educational disparities by providing quality early childhood education. Both cities are showcases for the importance of communal voices in shaping a city's future.

Collaborative governance models, where the government works directly with the community to invest in local initiatives, have been successful in many contexts. Such collaborations often yield more sustainable and community-centered outcomes. They harness local knowledge, build trust, and ensure that investments have a lasting impact.

In the current era of increasing community participation, many cities and municipalities are recognizing the value of resident input. Leveraging community insights to guide investments from funds like ARPA ensures that resources are allocated where they are most needed and can make the most significant difference (Pine & Geraghty, n.d.; Forsyth County Government, n.d.; Participatory Budgeting Project, n.d.; Franklin, Krane, & Ebdon, 2013).

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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Community members highlighted the potential limitation of using financial literacy as the sole measure of prosperity. It was discussed that while financial literacy is one aspect of measuring income and wealth generation, it is crucial to acknowledge the historical marginalization and labor exploitation experienced by Black people locally and nationally. Community members proposed further research to identify the specific factors that contribute to income generation for Black residents in WS/FC, moving beyond the scope of financial literacy alone.

BLACK CULTURAL ABUNDANCE:

GRIOTS OF WS/FC

design element

This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

A griot is a West African storyteller, historian, musician, and oral tradition keeper who holds an esteemed role within their community. Griots are responsible for preserving and transmitting the history, cultural heritage, and values of their people through oral narratives, songs, poetry, and music. They serve as custodians of collective memory, passing down knowledge from generation to generation and playing a vital role in preserving the cultural identity and continuity of their community. 

Read more in the glossary.

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"My mission in life is not merely to survive, but to thrive; and to do so with some passion, some compassion, some humor, and some style."
— Dr. Maya Angelou
Portrait of Dr. Maya Angelou

Participants shared that the Black community of Winston-Salem/Forsyth County is resilient, even while the research process revealed multiple impacts of systemic oppression and marginalization — specifically mentioning prenatal care, food deserts, health insurance, transportation, and voter turnout

Historical photo of baseball players at Old Southside Park
Baseball Players at Old Southside Park

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Group Portrait in Front of House
Group Portrait in Front of House
"Boyz in the hood" Gray Ave? Floyd Agers far right?

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Kids at Fourteenth Street Community Center
Kids at Fourteenth Street Community Center
June 1968

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Two Adults on swing in Eastgate Village
Two Adults on Swing in Eastgate Village
February 1970

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Cake Walk Winner on Senior Citizens Day at Sunrise Towers
Cake Walk Winner on Senior Citizens Day, Sunrise Towers
May 1971

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Pond Giants Baseball Players at a Ball Field presentation
Pond Giants Baseball Players at a Ball Field Presentation

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: La Mae Beauty College Graduates from 1944
The La Mae Beauty College Graduates
1944

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: The Winston-Salem Moles
The Winston-Salem Moles
Gwen Ashley center (seated) president at the Crystal Ballroom "Christmas Party"

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: People in front of Fourteenth Street Community Center
People in front of Fourteenth Street Community Center
June 1968

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Kids playing in front of Cleveland Ave Homes
Kids playing in front of Cleveland Ave Homes

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Band and Glee Club at Carver High School
Band and Glee Club, Carver High School
Gwen Ashley, director Glee Club. Charles Greene, director Band. Taken in the old Gym

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Adult on front porch of house and two children sitting on stairs
Adult on Front Porch and Two Children by Stairs
Mag 1-#5. Housing Authority. Conditions before redevelopment.

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Senior Citizens Day at Sunrise Towers
Senior Citizens Day at Sunrise Towers
May 1971

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Group of 3 baseball players at Old Southside park
Baseball Players at Old Southside Park

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Kids playing table tennis at Fourteenth Street Community Center
Kids Playing Table Tennis at Fourteenth Street Community Center
June 1968

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: Children playing on playground
Children playing at Cleveland Avenue Playground
November 1969

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: adult with two children walking along street
Adult with Two Children Walking Along Street
Housing Authority. Conditions before redevelopment.

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Historical Photo: People at front desk of community center
Front Desk at Fourteenth Street Community Center
June 1968

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Adult at podium for a holiday event
Adult at Podium in Sunrise Towers
December 4, 1970

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Adult on lawn mower on the street
Adult on Lawn Mower in front of Cleveland Avenue Homes
May 1958

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Teenager painting window trim of house
Teenager Painting Window Trim
January 1976

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

photo of Happy Hill Gardens buildings
Happy Hill Gardens
May 1958

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Man speaking at podium for a ground breaking ceremony
Groundbreaking Ceremony
July 1968

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Man driving road cleaner
Adult Driving Construction Equipment

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

Group setting up table at holiday event
Setting Up Event Table at Sunrise Towers
December 4, 1970

A History of Black Cultural Abundance: These photos provide a historical look through the generations of Black culture and life in Winston-Salem.

All photos are from the Winston-Salem African American Archive of the North Carolina Digital Collections.

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Sankofa Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Sankofa (or Go back and get it) Symbolizes the importance of learning from the past to move forward and gain wisdom.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

"I'm for truth, no matter who tells it. I'm for justice, no matter who it's for or against."
— Malcolm X
Portrait of Malcom X
Young woman smiling at podium

Participants lifted up multiple assets for mitigating these negative impacts, noting that Black people have talents, skills, and capacities that are gifts to the community, alongside places of worship, neighborhood, community, cultural groups, and associations that lift Black life and cultural knowledge: 

  • Participants expressed a value for WS/FC’s recreation centers and staff as welcoming spaces for gathering and organizing.
  • Neighbors for Better Neighborhoods was cited as an example of a Black, resident-led initiative serving to improve the community.
  • Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentor Program was noted as providing Black youth with the opportunity to learn how to be supportive peers in violence reduction.
  • The DRIVE Program (which provides an avenue through which individuals burdened by economic hardship may engage with the court system to have their driver’s license restored) and Partnership for Prosperity were also cited as positive contributors to the wellbeing and development of Black communities.
  • Black entrepreneurial spaces, such as Other Suns, centered in the heart of the community, was lifted up as a space offering economic opportunity, a place to learn Black history, and share West African cultural expression.
  • Additionally, there is $300 million dollars available for Black entrepreneurs within Community Development Financial Institutions (CDFIs). Under The U.S. Department of the Treasury, CDFIs promote access to capital and local economic growth in urban and rural low-income communities across the nation through monetary awards and the allocation of tax credits (Baumann, 2019).
  • Other assets named were Winston-Salem State University, HUSTLE WS as the Western Headquarters of Black Wall Street Forward, numerous local Black entrepreneurs, and non-profit organizations whose mission is to help Black WS/FC realize its capacity for success.
  • Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools was again mentioned as well-resourced ("District Overview: Budget," n.d.) with 87% of teachers demonstrating effectiveness, 17% recognized as highly effective (North Carolina School Report Card, n.d.).

Taken together, these assets provide a cohesive ecosystem that can serve to build and sustain Black liberation, or freedom from the oppression and marginalization of the systems noted earlier in the report. It is the opportunity to participate freely, without disparity, in the advantages, opportunities, and promises of America.

From the data

Voter Turnout

Civic engagement encompasses various community interactions, including volunteerism and voter turnout. Voter participation is considered a key metric for community engagement and is linked to social trust and positive health outcomes. 

In Forsyth County, voter turnout data for the 2020 Presidential and 2022 Midterm Elections shows a disparity based on race. Specifically, 74% of white citizens aged 18 and older voted in the 2020 Presidential election, compared to 65% of Black citizens; for the 2022 Midterm election, the figures were 54% for white citizens and 39% for Black citizens. The data did not include information on Hispanic/Latino residents due to incomplete voter registration data, leading to ambiguity in race categorization. It is possible that some of the voters who identified as white or Black also identify as Hispanic/Latino. 

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

Food Deserts

Food deserts, also referred to as ‘food access’, are areas with little or no access to affordable and nutritious food. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) identifies areas that may have issues with food access. This report measures the percentage of residents living in low-income areas where many homes don't have a car and are far from a supermarket, or where a significant number of residents live more than 20 miles from the nearest supermarket. 

In Forsyth County, there are noticeable differences in food accessibility depending on race and ethnicity. Between 2015 and 2019, nearly half of Black, non-Hispanic residents, and 38% of Hispanic/Latino residents lived in areas with food accessibility issues, as identified by the USDA. In contrast, only 11% of white, non-Hispanic residents faced these challenges.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

Prenatal care

Prenatal care refers to the medical check-ups and support that people receive when they are pregnant. This care usually includes physical exams, weight checks, urine tests, and possibly blood tests and ultrasound exams, all aimed at monitoring the health of both the pregnant person and the baby. 

In Forsyth County, there are differences in early prenatal care (within the first three months of pregnancy) among different racial and ethnic groups. In 2021, 84% of white, non-Hispanic residents who gave birth received prenatal care in the first three months of pregnancy, compared to 78% of non-Hispanic Black residents, and 68% of Hispanic/Latino residents. The exact schedule of follow-up visits varies according to the individual needs and risks assessed by the healthcare provider.

A 2022 study from the Urban Institute’s Health Policy Center looked into whether parents and their children under 19 felt they were treated unfairly in health care settings due to reasons like their race, where they come from, or the language they speak. The results showed that 1 out of 8 parents felt they were treated unfairly because of these differences. Black parents, especially, felt this more, with 1 out of 5 saying they faced unfair treatment. Some parents even said their kids were treated unfairly because of their background. Many of these parents reported facing problems in their health care because of this unfair treatment (Dulce Gonzalez, Karpman, Kenney, & McDaniel, 2022). 

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

Health insurance

Health insurance is vital for protecting people financially from the high costs of medical emergencies or chronic illnesses. It also encourages individuals to seek necessary medical care, including preventive measures, which helps maintain their overall well-being. Despite efforts like the Affordable Care Act (ACA) to increase insurance coverage, many Americans still lack insurance, especially in states that have not expanded Medicaid. 

In Forsyth County in 2021, there are disparities in health insurance coverage among different racial and ethnic groups. About 83% of white adults had health insurance, compared to 77% of Black or African American adults, and only 50% of Hispanic/Latino adults. Changes in healthcare laws and policies can impact these rates and potentially lead to more uninsured people.

Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.

Nkosochene Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nkosoɔhene (or Chief of the Drummers) symbolizes the importance of leadership, coordination, and unity.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

YOU’VE REACHED THE END OF BLACK CULTURAL ABUNDANCE: GRIOTS OF WINSTON-SALEM.

The next section is Black Liberation: Recommendations for Community Benefit. Keep scrolling to read this section or skip to a different section from the list below.

BLACK LIBERATION

& RECOMMENDATIONS FOR COMMUNITY BENEFIT

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This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.

Black Liberation:

Black Liberation is a multifaceted and dynamic movement rooted in the historical struggles and experiences of Black individuals and communities (both in the United States, as well as in the Diaspora). Viewpoints on Black Liberation are not homogenous; they encompass a wide range of religious beliefs, ideological perspectives, and theories of effective practice, reflecting the collective body of Black scholarship and activism, and the characteristic diversity of Black thought.

Read more on the Black Liberation page.

“For there is always light, if only we're brave enough to see it. If only we're brave enough to be it.”
— Amanda Gorman
Portrait of Amanda Gorman

Recommendations for Community Benefit

Over the course of this project the Participants were eager to participate in social change and were very vocal about it — strategies for community benefit and action were noted throughout the process.

Responses about action opportunities from across the qualitative research were coded by staff and the major themes are provided below, as well as specific action opportunities noted in each section.

Recognition and Celebration of Black Identities: This involves understanding the complexity and diversity of Black identities, rejecting stereotypes, and promoting an understanding of intersectionality, which encompasses race, class, gender, sexuality, and religious affiliations.

Community Ownership and Leadership: There's a strong emphasis on community driven involvement, community ownership and co-leadership of community members in institutional activities, research, and policy-making that impact the community. This also includes sharing and disseminating research content to spark broader discussions and action.

Promotion and Empowerment of Black Culture: This includes financially supporting institutions, initiatives, and events that promote and celebrate Black culture, learning about the rich history of Black peoples, and prioritizing the utilization of the social capital within Black communities to achieve equity and increase the vibrancy index.

Healing and Trust Building: Recognizing and addressing trauma caused by systemic oppression, practicing healing justice, and rebuilding trust among institutions, researchers, and communities are all crucial to progress.

Improvement of Education for Black Youth: This includes addressing achievement gaps, ensuring an equitable allocation of resources, supporting community school models, tackling racial segregation within schools, improving teacher effectiveness, reforming school discipline practices, and exploring culturally-affirming alternative educational opportunities.

Economic Empowerment: There was an emphasis on the need to support Black entrepreneurship, increase Black economic mobility, lower employment barriers, provide additional supports for Black people in the job market, and increase representation of Minority and Women Owned Business Enterprises.

Community Wealth Building: This involves supporting models of cooperative economics and collective work, recognizing the potential of agriculture for economic prosperity, and investing in community-based solutions.

Housing Equity: This involves addressing the housing affordability gap, improving housing quality, ensuring fair assessments of houses in Black neighborhoods, fighting against lending discrimination and gentrification, and supporting strategies to increase Black homeownership.

Inclusive Curriculum and Alternative Economies: Advocacy for the inclusion of Black history and financial literacy in school curriculum, exploration of alternatives to STEAM economy, and further research into Black income and wealth are suggested.

Community Organizing and Use of Community Assets: This involves mobilizing community assets to address systemic challenges, investing in community-building spaces and recreational centers, supporting resident-led initiatives and entrepreneurial spaces, and building coalitions for Black lives and economic mobility.

young boy with "vote here" signGroup of men with banner that says "Resisting the status quo & Building liberation"
young man reading newspaperMan and woman at the voting polls

Mental health awareness and accessibility

Mental health awareness and accessibility are crucial aspects of promoting well-being and ensuring equitable access to mental health care, particularly within Black communities in the US. Mental health awareness involves fostering an understanding of mental health conditions, reducing stigma, and promoting open discussions about mental well-being. It aims to empower individuals to recognize signs of distress, seek support, and engage in self-care practices.

In the context of Black communities, mental health awareness takes on added significance due to the unique challenges and experiences faced by individuals within these communities. Historical and ongoing systemic racism, discrimination, and social inequalities contribute to higher rates of mental health concerns among Black individuals. Additionally, cultural factors, such as stigma, mistrust of mental health systems, and the impact of intergenerational trauma, may further influence mental health experiences.

Accessibility in mental health refers to the availability, affordability, and removal of barriers to mental health services and resources. It encompasses ensuring that individuals have equitable access to culturally competent and linguistically appropriate care, regardless of their socioeconomic status. Accessible mental health services are essential in addressing disparities within Black communities, as they can help overcome barriers related to financial constraints, lack of insurance coverage, transportation, and systemic biases in the healthcare system (Carter, 2007; Coates, 2015; PBS Religion & Ethics Newsweekly, 2015; DeGruy, 2017; Mental Health America, n.d.; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, SAMHSA, n.d.; World Health Organization, 2019).

"It's time for us as a people to start making some changes, let's change the way we eat, let's change the way we live, and let's change the way we treat each other. You see, the old way wasn't working, so it's on us to do what we gotta do to survive."
— Tupac Shakur
Portrait of Tupac Shakur
Mpuannum Adinkra Symbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Mpuannum (or Five Tufts of Hair) represents democracy, unity, and consensus-building.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

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List of Additional Suggested Action Opportunities, by Section

Introduction

  • Lift up the complexity and diversity of Black identities: expand the idea of "Black" to include all intersections of race, class, gender, sexuality, and religious affiliations among others. Acknowledge intersectionality and the multi-dimensional experiences of privilege and oppression. Reject stereotypes and singular narratives.
  • Actively incorporate community leadership and where appropriate, community ownership in institutional activities that impact the community.
  • Extend the conversations sparked by the report into broader community discussions and action. Share and disseminate the research content in engaging, accessible ways.

Black Culture in WS/FC

  • Support and engage with institutions and initiatives that promote Black culture and social capital, focus on community ownership, empowerment, and equitable access to resources for Black individuals and communities, and promote health and healing.
  • Encourage and support events that celebrate Black culture and empower its members.
  • Learn about the rich history of the Black peoples in WS/FC and beyond.

Centering the Narrative

  • Build support for Community-based Research (CBR) approaches and engage marginalized communities in research and policy-making as leaders and decision makers, shifting from tokenism and a culture of engaging community members as mere consultants. Generate actionable knowledge that can be directly applied to policy development. Advocate for change.
  • Work to rebuild damaged trust among institutions, researchers, and communities.
  • Adopt a more expansive understanding of community health that is holistic and human-centered.
  • Cultivate community-centric practices that value the community’s role in the upbringing, care, love, and mentoring of youth, as well as in the reverence for and protection of elders.
  • Work to recognize and root out the trauma inflicted by systemic oppression; support and participate in opportunities for both community and individual healing justice.

Black Life and Education

  • Address achievement gaps in education, particularly those affecting Black students.
  • Examine and rectify school funding disparities to ensure equitable allocation of resources.
  • Tackle racial segregation within schools, which mirrors residential segregation and support the community school model by fostering culturally affirming family and community engagement.
  • Support strategies to improve teacher effectiveness, with a focus on employing experienced and culturally-competent educators in schools with majority Black students. Develop sustainable pipelines to recruit and retain educators of color with an emphasis of Black males.
  • Reform school discipline practices; disrupt and dismantle the school-to-priosn pipeline. Explore alternative educational opportunities outside traditional schools, that provide culturally-affirming spaces for Black youth.
  • Include a broad range of voices in decision-making, including teachers, custodians, and even students. Engage with advocacy efforts, with a focus on culturally-specific groups and initiatives.

Impact of the Local Economy

  • Increase support for Black entrepreneurship; establish sustainable apprentice programs.
  • Advocate for local employers to pay a living wage and support evidence-based strategies to increase Black economic mobility and build Black wealth.
  • Provide additional supports to help Black people better compete in the modern local job market, support strategies to transition the tobacco economy of WS/FC’s past.
  • Remove barriers to employment; provide accessibility to jobs through improved transportation and increase the availability of affordable child care.
  • Increase Black Owned Business Enterprise representation in traditionally white male-dominated industries.

Sovereign Economies and Black Entrepreneurship

  • Support and build on the model of Island CultureZ to build community wealth in historically neglected and excluded communities. 
  • Innovate, reinvent, and adapt to changing economic conditions.
  • Invest in cooperative economics, spiritual/servant leadership, and collective work and responsibility to build stronger communities and economies.
  • Recognize agriculture as a fundamental human right and its potential to restore value and economic prosperity.
  • Develop community-based solutions rather than relying on external assistance

A Place to Call Home

  • Address the affordability gap
  • Improve housing quality.
  • Develop fair and equitable assessment of houses in Black neighborhoods and create land trusts for dilapidated and abandoned housing.
  • Fight discrimination in lending and access to credit.Support strategies to increase Black homeownership and provide more education and support in the homeownership process.
  • Fight gentrification.

Collective Work and Responsibility

  • Advocate for inclusion of Black history and financial literacy in school curriculum.
  • Explore alternatives to STEAM economy. Conduct further community based and / or participatory research into factors contributing to Black income and wealth.
  • Support and invest in community-building spaces.
  • Build and resource Black-led coalitions to support Black lives and economic mobility; promote and engage in community organizing to address local issues.

Black Cultural Abundance: Griots of WS/FC

  • Mobilize community assets to address systemic challenges; make effective use of existing financial and institutional resources.
  • Invest in and maintain recreational centers. Extend opening hours of recreation centers to meet the needs of youth.
  • Support Black resident-led initiatives.
  • Support and invest in Back entrepreneurial spaces.
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COMMUNITY-NOTED LIMITATIONS

About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.

Community members expressed that the report could be strengthened through providing specific definitions of, Black Liberation, Community and Safety, noting that these definitions will provide important context for the overall report. Additionally, community members suggested expansions on mental health awareness and accessibility should be included in what is meant by Black Liberation

Akoben Adinkra Synbol

The West African Adinkra Symbol of Akoben (or War Horn) symbolizes vigilance, readiness, and the call to action.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.

"The greatest fear of the oppressor is a people who get up in the morning not looking for a dollar, but looking for freedom...Wake up in the morning & say: 'I wanna be free!"
— Hazel Mack
Portrait of Ms. Hazel Mack

Reading List

These books provide a primer to the concept of Black liberation, spanning historical, sociopolitical, and intersectional perspectives. They offer valuable insights into the ongoing struggle for justice and liberation and the contributions of Black thinkers, activists, and communities. This list should be considered exemplary, and by no means exhaustive.

  • "Black Theology and Black Power: The Black Experience of Liberation in America" by J. H. Cone — In "Black Theology and Black Power," James H. Cone, a prominent figure in Black Liberation Theology, examines the transformative potential of Christianity in the pursuit of Black power and liberation, offering a thought-provoking analysis of the Black experience and its theological significance in the ongoing fight for racial justice.
  • "Blues Legacies and Black Feminism: Gertrude 'Ma' Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday" by A. Y. Davis — In "Blues Legacies and Black Feminism," Angela Y. Davis celebrates the influential blues singers Gertrude "Ma" Rainey, Bessie Smith, and Billie Holiday, exploring how their music and performances defied oppression and asserted agency within a male-dominated industry, while highlighting the intersection of Black feminism and the blues tradition in their powerful legacy for gender and racial equality.
  • "The Souls of Black Folk" by W.E.B. Du Bois — This classic work explores the double consciousness of African Americans and the enduring struggle for equality and liberation.
  • "Black Feminist Thought" by Patricia Hill Collins — This book introduces the concept of intersectionality and how Black feminism offers critical insights into the experiences of Black women.
  • "The Autobiography of Malcolm X" by Malcolm X and Alex Haley — This autobiography provides a powerful firsthand account of Malcolm X's journey from criminal to activist and his advocacy for Black empowerment.
  • "Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement" by Angela Y. Davis — This book brings together Davis' perspectives on various liberation movements, connecting struggles for justice worldwide.
  • "Assata: An Autobiography" by Assata Shakur — Assata Shakur's autobiography shares her experiences as a member of the Black Panther Party and her activism for Black liberation.
  • "The Fire Next Time" by James Baldwin — This collection of essays discusses the complexities of race in America and the urgent need for racial justice and reconciliation.
  • "Sister Outsider: Essays and Speeches" by Audre Lorde — This collection of essays by Audre Lorde addresses the intersections of race, gender, and sexuality and emphasizes the importance of unity and solidarity.
  • "How We Get Free: Black Feminism and the Combahee River Collective" edited by Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor — This book explores the history and impact of the Combahee River Collective, a Black feminist organization.
  • "The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America" by Richard Rothstein — This book examines the government's role in creating and perpetuating racial segregation in housing and its impact on Black communities.
  • "Emergent Strategy: Shaping Change, Changing Worlds" by adrienne maree brown — This book explores strategies for liberation and transformation, drawing from social justice movements.
  • "Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition" by Cedric J. Robinson — This work examines the history and development of Black radical thought and its contributions to the struggle for liberation.
  • "The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America" by Khalil Gibran Muhammad — This book delves into the historical construction of Black criminality and its impact on perceptions of Black communities.
  • "Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom" by bell hooks — This insightful book delves into education as a means of liberation, emphasizing the importance of critical thinking and challenging systems of oppression. hooks advocates for engaging classrooms where students and teachers can collaboratively build knowledge.
Kente cloth-inspired motif design
Income Insufficiency

Income Insufficiency

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Income insufficiency is a measure of financial hardship that compares a household's income to their estimated expenses. This concept offers a more comprehensive picture of financial instability than traditional poverty rates, accounting for demographic and geographic factors, as well as temporal changes in expenses. Households are considered income insufficient when their incomes fall below the estimated cost of living. 

This definition is specific to the quantitative measure referenced in this report. For more information on how income insufficiency is defined and measured see the income insufficiency section on the Data and Tables page.

Innovation Quarter

Innovation Quarter

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

The Innovation Quarter, located in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, is a hub for research, business, and education in biomedical science, information technology, clinical services, and advanced materials. It's an enterprise of Wake Forest School of Medicine and part of Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center.

The Innovation Quarter is known for encouraging collaboration and innovation. The facilities include state-of-the-art research labs and classrooms, co-working spaces, and even residential and recreational spaces. The quarter has been instrumental in attracting tech startups, established companies, and renowned researchers, fostering economic development in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County.

It is important to acknowledge that the land upon which the Innovation Quarter is built was once home to the heart of Winston-Salem's Black community. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Depot Street (today's Patterson Avenue) played a vital role in Black life in early Winston. It served as the cultural and social center of the Black community, housing real estate offices, doctors' and lawyers' offices, drugstores, printing presses, barbershops, beauty shops, funeral homes, churches, movie theaters, and cafes. Of particular significance was the Depot Street Graded School, established in 1887—the first public school for Black children in Winston. Under the leadership of Simon Green Atkins, it expanded to become the largest and most significant public school for Black children and youth in North Carolina, offering primary and high school education as well as industrial training.

A historic marker can be found on the grounds of the Innovation Quarter, acknowledging this history: "Depot Street Graded School Site. When built in 1887, the Depot Street Graded School was the largest and most important public school for African Americans in North Carolina. Education pioneer, Dr. Simon Green Atkins, came to Winston as principal of the school in 1890. Under Atkins' leadership, the school expanded in 1894 and became home to Winston's first African American high school in 1895. The Depot Street Graded School burned in the 1920s.

Today, the Innovation Quarter stands as a symbol of innovation for Winston-Salem, and there have been efforts to use the venue to educate and spread awareness about the rich history and contributions of the Black community.

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Intersectionality

Intersectionality

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Intersectionality is a socio-political concept that offers a lens through which to examine the multiple layers of inequality that affect an individual and how different forms of discrimination interact. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term as a way to help explain the overlapping layers of oppression of African American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Intersectionality, defined by Crenshaw as “a prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other,” recognizes that multiple sources of oppression can disadvantage individuals: their race, socioeconomic class, gender, sexuality, religion, and other identity markers.

Rather than viewing these elements separately, intersectionality examines how these forms of discrimination are interconnected and calls for an analysis of co-occurring and mutually reinforcing forms of inequality. It acknowledges that people's experiences of privilege or oppression are complex and multidimensional and rejects the idea that people's identities can be simplified or divided into separate categories. For example, a person who identifies as a woman of color with a disability would face discrimination unique to the intersection of these specific identities.

Originally, intersectionality centered on feminism, highlighting how women face multiple and varying levels of discrimination. For example, a woman of color who is also a member of the LGBTQ+ community will face more discrimination than a straight white woman. Today, intersectionality has spread beyond feminism to describe how members of marginalized groups can meet stacked inequalities that stem from multiple facets of their identities.

In contemporary academic and social discourse, intersectionality is a lens to analyze societal structures and cultural patterns, illuminating dynamics that might not be visible otherwise. It's used in various fields, such as sociology, psychology, politics, gender studies, and more, to deepen the understanding of social inequality and to promote social justice.

See also: Identity

Sources:

Juneteenth

Juneteenth

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Juneteenth, also known as Freedom Day or Emancipation Day, is an annual holiday commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African Americans in the United States. It specifically celebrates the announcement of the abolition of slavery in the state of Texas on June 19, 1865, two and a half years after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued. Juneteenth has become a symbol of freedom, African American heritage, and the ongoing struggle for racial equality.

Sources:

Prenatal Care

Prenatal Care

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Prenatal care refers to the healthcare services and support provided to pregnant individuals to monitor and promote the well-being of both the pregnant person and the developing fetus. However, it is important to acknowledge the significant disparities in access to and quality of prenatal care, particularly among Black mothers in the United States.

Black mothers in the U.S. face disproportionate barriers to receiving adequate prenatal care, which can lead to negative health outcomes for both the mother and the baby. These disparities may stem from various factors, including systemic racism, socioeconomic inequalities, implicit biases within healthcare systems, and unequal access to resources and healthcare facilities.

Addressing these disparities requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses efforts to reduce structural barriers, increase healthcare access and affordability, enhance cultural competency among healthcare providers, and ensure equitable distribution of resources. It is crucial to prioritize the elimination of racial disparities in prenatal care and work towards providing equitable and high-quality care to all pregnant individuals, regardless of their racial or ethnic background.

Sources:

Racism

Racism

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Racism is an extensive socio-political system where societal members are treated differently based on their racial or ethnic backgrounds. It is deeply ingrained in societies, institutions, and individuals, and is grounded in a hierarchy that ranks people based on their presumed racial superiority or inferiority. This ranking often leads to the dominant group accruing benefits at the expense of other groups.

​​Carter G. Woodson, often referred to as the "Father of Black History," was a pioneering African American historian, author, and journalist. He is best known for establishing Black History Month in the United States, but his writings and scholarship also delved deep into understanding the experiences and contributions of Black Americans throughout history.

A significant part of Woodson's theory about the connections between slavery and the racist ideal revolved around the concept of "mis-education." In his seminal work, "The Mis-Education of the Negro" (1933), Woodson argued that the education system in the U.S. indoctrinated Black Americans to accept white superiority and Black inferiority, essentially perpetuating racial hierarchies and the racist status quo.

Concerning the connections between slavery and racist ideals:

  • Racism as a Justification for Slavery: Woodson believed that racism served as an ideological tool to justify the institution of slavery. By propagating notions of African inferiority, European and white American slaveholders and proponents of slavery could defend the institution as a necessary and even beneficial system.
  • Economic and Social Dependence: Slavery, for Woodson, wasn't just an economic system but also a social institution that shaped perceptions and beliefs. By presenting Black individuals as dependent, subservient, and inferior, white society was able to maintain a system where Black labor benefited white economic interests. The continued racist portrayals of Black individuals even after the end of slavery were deeply connected to these foundational racist beliefs born out of the institution of slavery.

Education and Indoctrination: Woodson placed significant emphasis on the role of education in perpetuating racist ideals. He believed that both Black and white students were taught a skewed version of history and societal values that celebrated white accomplishments while minimizing or maligning Black contributions. This mis-education, in Woodson's view, was a direct outgrowth of the ideological systems developed to justify slavery, and it persisted long after slavery's end.

In essence, Carter G. Woodson argued that the racist ideas perpetuated to justify slavery did not disappear with the end of the institution. Instead, they became deeply embedded in American society, culture, and education, continually reinforcing racial hierarchies and white supremacy.

Racism can manifest in various forms:

  • Individual Racism: This form of racism is based on individual beliefs, attitudes, and actions that perpetuate stereotypes and prejudice against certain racial or ethnic groups. It can include both explicit acts of racial bigotry and more subtle, unconscious biases.
  • Interpersonal Racism: This refers to the racism that occurs between individuals. It happens when individuals interact and their personal racial beliefs affect their public interactions.
  • Institutional Racism: This refers to policies, practices, and procedures of institutions that have a disproportionately negative effect on certain racial or ethnic groups. These discriminatory practices are often codified in the institution’s culture, norms, or rules and may appear neutral but have the effect of reinforcing racial disparities.
  • Systemic or Structural Racism: This form of racism involves the cumulative and compounding effects of factors such as inequality in opportunities, social stratification, and the unjust application of laws across racial and ethnic groups. It is a form of racism that is embedded in the laws, regulations, rules, and procedures of society and its institutions that lead to differential outcomes by race.

Racism can result in a wide range of social, economic, and health disparities, from income inequality and educational achievement gaps to disparities in health outcomes and rates of incarceration.

Sources:

  • Woodson, C. G. (1933). The Mis-Education of the Negro. Associated Publishers.
  • Adelman, L. (Executive Producer), Herbes-Sommers, C., Strain, T., & Smith, L. (Producers), & Cheng, J. (Series Co-Producer). (2003). The Difference Between Us. In Race and the Power of an Illusion [DVD]. California Newsreel.
  • CBS Mornings. (2021, November 2). Michael Eric Dyson on race in America [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwfzLi-2ou0
  • Dyson, M. E. (2021). Entertaining Race: Performing Blackness in America. St. Martin's Press.
  • Bouie, J. (2023, July 13). Racism and race: John Roberts' two-step. Portside, Material of Interest to People on the Left. https://portside.org/2023-07-13/racism-and-race-john-roberts-two-step
  • Kendi, I. X. (2019). How to be an Antiracist. One World/Ballantine.
  • Jones, C. P. (2000). Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener's tale. American journal of public health, 90(8), 1212–1215. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212
  • Coats, T. (2022). Ta-Nahesi Coates Discusses Race, Law and Politics with Georgetown Professor. https://college.georgetown.edu/news-story/ta-nehisi-coates-lecture/
Recreation Centers

Recreation Centers

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Recreation centers, also known as community centers or leisure centers, are facilities that provide a range of recreational and social activities for individuals and communities. These centers serve as gathering places where people can engage in various sports, fitness programs, cultural events, educational activities, and social interactions. Recreation centers often offer amenities such as sports courts, swimming pools, fitness equipment, classrooms, meeting spaces, and organized programs for people of all ages.

Recreation centers hold particular significance for Black communities in the United States. They play a crucial role in fostering community engagement, promoting physical and mental well-being, and addressing social and cultural needs. These centers can serve as safe spaces that offer opportunities for leisure, personal development, social connection, and community building.

Historically, recreation centers have provided Black communities with important resources, particularly during times of segregation and limited access to public facilities. They have served as places where African Americans could gather, participate in recreational activities, and create supportive networks. Recreation centers have played a role in nurturing talent in sports and arts, providing platforms for cultural expression, and empowering individuals and communities.

Research has emphasized the positive impact of recreation centers on Black communities, including promoting physical health, fostering social cohesion, enhancing personal development, and addressing disparities in access to recreational opportunities. These centers contribute to the overall well-being of Black individuals and communities by offering spaces for cultural preservation, community organizing, and empowerment.

Sources:

  • Davis, L., & Rice, W. (1994). African Americans in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County: A pictorial history. Walsworth Publishing.
Redlining

Redlining

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Redlining is a discriminatory practice that began in the United States in the 1930s, where financial institutions, insurance companies, and other organizations systematically denied or limited financial services in specific neighborhoods, most commonly in urban, racialized communities. The term "redlining" originates from the color-coded maps created by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC). On these maps, areas deemed "hazardous" for investment, often those inhabited by African Americans or immigrants, were outlined in red.

The effects of redlining were far-reaching and devastating, leading to disinvestment in these neighborhoods, exacerbated poverty, and perpetuation of socioeconomic disparities. Despite being outlawed in the late 20th century, the legacy of redlining continues to contribute to racial wealth gaps and segregation in American cities.

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‘Right to Work’ State

‘Right to Work’ State

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

A "right-to-work" state is one that has enacted legislation prohibiting agreements between labor unions and employers that make membership in a union, or payment of union dues, a requirement for employment. These laws are rooted in Section 14(b) of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which allows states to pass such legislation. As of 2021, there were 27 "right-to-work" states in the United States.

While the stated purpose of "right-to-work" laws is to protect workers' freedom of association and choice, critics argue that these laws weaken labor unions, depress wages, and lead to more unsafe workplaces.

See also: Labor Union

Sources:

  • Hogler, R. (2017). The End of American Labor Unions: The Right-to-Work Movement and the Erosion of Collective Bargaining. Praeger.
  • Taft-Hartley Act, 29 U.S.C. § 141 et seq. (1947).
R.J. Reynolds

R.J. Reynolds

TIER 1 GLOSSARY REVIEW

R.J. Reynolds, born as Richard Joshua Reynolds, was an American businessman and entrepreneur. He is best known as the founder of the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, one of the largest and most influential tobacco companies in the United States.

R.J. Reynolds was born on July 20, 1850, in Patrick County, Virginia. He started his career in the tobacco industry by working for his father's tobacco farm and later established his own tobacco company in 1875. Reynolds revolutionized the industry by introducing mass production techniques and innovative marketing strategies, such as the iconic Camel cigarettes brand.

Throughout his career, Reynolds played a significant role in shaping the tobacco industry and its impact on society. His company became a major player in the American tobacco market and had a profound influence on cigarette manufacturing, advertising, and product development.

However, it's important to note that the tobacco industry, including R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, has faced criticism and legal challenges regarding the health risks associated with smoking and marketing practices targeting vulnerable populations.

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Safety

Safety

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Safety refers to the state of being protected from harm, danger, or risk. It encompasses both physical and psychological well-being, where individuals feel secure, free from threat, and able to pursue their lives without fear of harm.

In the context of Black communities in the US, safety takes on added dimensions due to the historical and contemporary experiences of systemic racism, discrimination, and violence. Black communities have disproportionately faced various forms of harm, including police brutality, racial profiling, structural inequalities, and socio-economic disparities. Consequently, safety for black communities extends beyond individual well-being and includes addressing systemic injustices and promoting social justice.

The origins of the modern-day police system in the U.S. can be traced back to the "Slave Patrol." Instituted in the early 1700s, these patrols were designed to prevent slave uprisings, capture and return runaway slaves, and maintain strict control over the slave population. Notably, they had the authority to forcibly enter homes on mere suspicion of harboring runaway slaves. This system, built on racial control, persisted until the Civil War's conclusion and the 13th Amendment's passage. Following emancipation, the slave patrol system gave way to various other forms of racially biased law enforcement, such as the Black Codes and, later, Jim Crow laws. These racial disparities remain entrenched within the contemporary criminal justice system, with significant impacts on minority communities.

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School Discipline Practices

School Discipline Practices

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

School discipline practices refer to the policies, strategies, and actions used by schools to manage student behavior, promote a safe and orderly learning environment, and encourage positive behavior. These practices may include rewards and consequences, conflict resolution strategies, and a range of interventions to address behavioral issues. The goal is to foster a positive school climate that supports learning for all students.

There has been a significant shift in school discipline practices in recent years. Traditionally, discipline in schools often relied on punitive measures such as suspension, expulsion, or detention. However, research has shown that these methods can have negative effects, including lower academic achievement, higher dropout rates, and increased likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system.

Increasingly, schools are moving towards more positive discipline strategies, such as restorative justice practices, social and emotional learning, and positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS). These approaches aim to help students learn from their mistakes, develop empathy, improve their social skills, and make positive changes in their behavior.

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Segregation

Segregation

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Segregation is a practice or policy that involves the separation of a certain group or groups of people from the rest of society. This separation can be based on various attributes, such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, or religion, and it can occur in various contexts like housing, education, employment, and others.

Historically, segregation in the United States was consistently associated with unequal access to resources, opportunities, and social services. These historic inequities persist in many communities today because the damage done in the past has not been fully accounted for or repaired. 

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Systems of Marginalization and Oppression

Systems of Marginalization and Oppression

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Systems of marginalization and oppression refer to structural and societal mechanisms that exclude, disadvantage, or harm certain groups based on their perceived social differences such as race, gender, socio-economic status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability, and religion, among others. These systems are deeply embedded within societal institutions, including legal systems, education, healthcare, and economic structures, and are often perpetuated through cultural norms and biases.

Marginalization refers to the process by which certain groups are pushed to the edges of society, making them lesser in status and limiting their access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making processes.

Oppression, on the other hand, is the unjust exercise of authority or power over a group, often involving the systematic denial of basic human rights and freedoms. Oppression is often enacted by dominant groups to maintain and control power.

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Transportation

Transportation

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Transportation, specifically in the context of transportation modes and systems that support local communities, refers to the movement of people and goods within and between geographic areas. It encompasses various modes of transportation, including public transit, walking, cycling, and private vehicles, as well as the infrastructure, services, and policies that enable transportation.

The relationship between transportation and Black communities in the United States is significant, as transportation systems can both contribute to and perpetuate existing racial inequities. Black communities often face transportation disparities, including limited access to reliable and affordable transportation options, inadequate infrastructure, and unequal distribution of resources.

Historical factors such as racial segregation, discriminatory practices, and disinvestment in Black communities have shaped transportation systems, resulting in limited public transit options and inadequate connectivity. These disparities can lead to reduced access to employment opportunities, education, healthcare, and essential services for Black individuals and communities.

Addressing transportation disparities requires a comprehensive approach that includes equitable transportation planning, improved public transit options, increased investments in infrastructure, and community engagement in decision-making processes. By prioritizing the needs of Black communities in transportation planning and policy, it is possible to enhance mobility, reduce transportation barriers, and promote social and economic opportunities.

Sources:

  • Holt, G. E. (2017). The Transportation Experience of African Americans in the Twentieth Century. In S. T. Yeh (Ed.), Handbook of Transport and Urban Planning in the Developed World (pp. 367-384). Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Young, L., Irvin, E., & Shankar, P. (n.d.). Equity and Smart Mobility. Institute for Sustainable Communities. Retrieved from https://cnt.org/sites/default/files/publications/Equity-and-Smart-Mobility-Report.pdf

Trauma

Trauma

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Trauma, in general terms, refers to the response to a deeply distressing or disturbing event that overwhelms an individual's ability to cope, causes feelings of helplessness, diminishes their sense of self and their ability to feel the full range of emotions and experiences. Trauma can have profound psychological and physiological effects, often leading to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety disorders, and other mental health conditions.

In the context of Black Americans, trauma can be viewed through both a historical and a contemporary lens. 

Historical trauma refers to the cumulative emotional and psychological wounding over the lifespan and across generations, emanating from massive group trauma experiences. For Black Americans, this includes the legacy of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, Jim Crow laws, and other systemic racist policies and practices throughout history. The impacts of this historical trauma can be seen in many aspects of life, including disparities in health, education, housing, and wealth.

Contemporary trauma among Black Americans encompasses ongoing personal, institutional, and systemic racism. This includes experiences of microaggressions, police brutality, racial profiling, and other forms of discrimination and violence. This can also include the vicarious trauma from witnessing racial violence, even through media reports. 

Additionally, the concept of intergenerational trauma is relevant. Intergenerational trauma refers to trauma that isn't just experienced by one person but is transferred from the first generation of trauma survivors to the second and further generations of offspring. This trauma can influence mental and physical health, cultural identity, and socio-economic status.

Therefore, in relation to Black Americans, trauma is not just an individual phenomenon but a collective one, deeply rooted in a historical context and perpetuated by ongoing systemic racism and discrimination. It's also essential to note that while trauma has significantly impacted the Black American community, it does not define it. There are also narratives of resilience, strength, and healing.

To gain a fuller understanding of the traumatic experiences of Black Americans, which are diverse and complex, it is beneficial to explore beyond scholarly articles and statistics. Emotional, creative, and spiritual modalities, like poetry, can offer valuable insights into the lived experiences and depths of trauma within the Black community. Poetry, in particular, taps into the raw emotions and profound reflections of individuals, making it a potent medium for understanding. For those looking to delve into this perspective, the poetry collection, "Unhealed Trauma Queen: Personal poems for the hurt, broken, and unhealed queens" by Sidney Michelle Coleman provides an evocative lens into the experience of trauma from a Black woman poet.

The traumatic experiences of Black Americans are diverse and complex, and these sources provide a framework to understand those experiences— they are exemplary and by no means exhaustive.

Sources:

  • DeGruy, J. (2017). Post traumatic slave syndrome: America's legacy of enduring injury and healing. Joy DeGruy Publications Inc.
  • Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2006). Racist Incident-Based Trauma. The Counseling Psychologist, 33(4), 479–500. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258192124_Racist_Incident-Based_Trauma
  • Sotero, M. (2006). A Conceptual Model of Historical Trauma: Implications for Public Health Practice and Research. Journal of Health Disparities Research and Practice, 1(1), 93-108. https://ssrn.com/abstract=1350062
  • Danieli, Y. (Ed.). (1998). International Handbook of Multigenerational Legacies of Trauma. Plenum Press.
  • Roberts, A. L., Gilman, S. E., Breslau, J., Breslau, N., & Koenen, K. C. (2011). Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine, 41(1), 71–83. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20346193/
  • Williams, M. T., Metzger, I. W., Leins, C., & DeLapp, C. (2018). Assessing racial trauma within a DSM–5 framework: The UConn Racial/Ethnic Stress & Trauma Survey. Practice Innovations, 3(4), 242–260. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2018-37737-001
United States of America

United States of America

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

The United States of America, a North American nation of over 331 million people, is rich in cultural diversity derived from its long history of colonization and immigration. The land known today as the United States was stolen from Indigenous peoples who faced genocide and displacement at the hands of white European colonizers, beginning in the 15th century. Starting in the late 16th century, the transatlantic slave trade was used by colonizers to forcibly bring millions of Africans to the Americas, establishing the roots of the Black American population.

This institution of slavery was not just brutal and dehumanizing, but it was also an economic engine that greatly contributed to the wealth and development of the United States. The labor of enslaved Africans was foundational in industries such as agriculture, particularly in the production of cotton, tobacco, and rice. This generated enormous wealth for the country, particularly in the South, and allowed the U.S. to become a leading economic power in the global market — a disparate economic legacy that continues to have long-lasting effects.

The institution of slavery entrenched racial hierarchy through the exploitation and oppression of African Americans. Following the Civil War and the abolition of slavery in 1865, the hope for racial equality in the brief Reconstruction era was short-lived with the rise of 'Jim Crow' laws that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Urban renewal policies in the mid-20th century often disproportionately impacted Black neighborhoods, resulting in forced displacement and community disruption.

The Civil Rights Movement emerged in the mid-20th century, leading to significant legal advancements like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. However, racial disparities have persisted in areas such as education, healthcare, and criminal justice. Contemporary issues such as institutionalized police brutality and the school-to-prison pipeline highlight the systemic nature of these injustices.

According to the 2020 Census, about 13.4% of the U.S. population identifies as Black or African American. This collective community has demonstrated resilience throughout history, persisting through adversity and making foundational contributions to American society. Their cultural richness and creative genius have significantly shaped arts, music, literature, cuisine, athletics, scholarship, science, technology, theology, and every other facet of American culture. While challenges persist, the resilience, determination, and vibrant cultural legacy of Black Americans continues to nourish the promise of a liberated, just, and joyful future.

Sources:

  • United States Census Bureau. (2020). QuickFacts: United States. Retrieved from https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/US/PST045219
  • Beckert, S., & Rockman, S. (2016). Slavery's capitalism: A new history of American economic development. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Berlin, I. (2003). Generations of Captivity: A History of African American Slaves. Belknap Press.
  • Anderson, C. (2017). White Rage: The Unspoken Truth of Our Racial Divide. Bloomsbury.
  • Alexander, M. (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. The New Press.
  • Rothstein, R. (2017). The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. Liveright.
Urban Renewal

Urban Renewal

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Urban renewal, also known as urban redevelopment, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high-density urban land use. This concept became popular in the mid-20th century and was seen as a solution to combat ‘urban decay’, improve the physical layout of cities, and make them more attractive to investment. Urban renewal often involved the demolition of ‘blighted’ or ‘outdated’ buildings, the improvement of urban infrastructure, and the construction of new buildings and facilities.

However, urban renewal programs in the United States have been controversial due to their impacts on specific communities, particularly Black and low-income communities. These programs often led to the displacement of residents without providing adequate affordable housing alternatives. Neighborhoods with predominantly Black residents were disproportionately affected, leading to what James Baldwin famously termed "Negro removal."

The process of urban renewal often resulted in the destruction of vibrant communities and led to social and economic disruption. While intentions behind urban renewal efforts were often described as ‘to enhance urban living conditions,’ in many cases, it exacerbated racial segregation, economic inequality, and community displacement.

Sources:

  • Nash, S. C. (2011). Reynoldstown: Race, Blight, Disease, Highway Construction and The Transformation of Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://www.scribd.com/document/401094810/Reynoldstown-Race-Blight-Disease-Highway-Construction-and-the-Transformation-of-Winston-Salem-North-Carolina#
  • Fullilove, M. T. (2004). Root Shock: How Tearing Up City Neighborhoods Hurts America, and What We Can Do About It. New Village Press.
  • Wilson, W. J. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. University of Chicago Press.3. Jacobs, J. (1961). 
  • The Death and Life of Great American Cities. Vintage.4. Gotham, K. F. (2001). 
  • Urban Redevelopment, Past and Present. In R. P. Greene (Ed.), Cities and Development in the New South (pp. 85–106). Garland Publishing.
  • Hirsch, A. R. (1983). Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago 1940–1960. University of Chicago Press.
Voter Turnout

Voter Turnout

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Voter turnout refers to the percentage of eligible individuals who participate in an election by casting their vote. It is a measure of civic engagement and reflects the level of public participation in the democratic process. Higher voter turnout indicates increased political involvement and a broader representation of the electorate in decision-making.

The relationship between voter turnout and Black communities in the United States is complex, and ongoing efforts to suppress voter turnout have disproportionately impacted these communities. Historically, Black communities have faced various barriers to voting, including racial discrimination and systemic voter suppression tactics. These efforts have included voter ID laws, restrictions on early voting and absentee ballots, polling place closures, and purging of voter rolls, which have disproportionately affected Black voters.

In recent years, there has been a resurgence of voter suppression efforts targeting Black communities. These efforts aim to undermine the voting power of marginalized groups and limit their influence on elections and policy outcomes. However, there has also been a strong response from civil rights organizations, community activists, and legal advocates who are working tirelessly to challenge voter suppression laws and protect the voting rights of Black communities.

Efforts to combat voter suppression include advocacy for expanded access to early voting, automatic voter registration, restoration of voting rights for formerly incarcerated individuals, and increased education and outreach in Black communities. These efforts seek to empower Black voters, protect their voting rights, and promote equitable political participation.

References:

  • Hajnal, Z., Lajevardi, N., & Nielson, L. (2017). Voter Identification Laws and the Suppression of Minority Votes. The Journal of Politics, 79(2). https://doi.org/10.1086/688343
  • Fraga, B. L. (2016). The Turnout Gap: Race, Ethnicity, and Political Inequality in a Diversifying America. Cambridge University Press.
Writing Team

Writing Team

Following the preliminary research activities for this project, a smaller Writing Team, composed of CBR participants, worked intensively with staff over the course of several months to discuss and prepare the final content of the report. Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report. 

Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, North Carolina

Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, North Carolina

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, North Carolina: Winston-Salem, located within Forsyth County in North Carolina, is a vibrant region known for its rich history. Originally established as two separate towns in the mid-18th century, Salem (a Moravian religious settlement) and Winston (an industrial city), the two towns consolidated in 1913 to become Winston-Salem.

Historically, Winston-Salem was a powerhouse of the tobacco and textile industries with the presence of Reynolds Tobacco Company and Hanes Brands Inc., respectively. It was also known for banking with the Wachovia Bank and Trust Company. Today, the city is a hub for innovation, health care, and arts, often described as the 'City of Arts and Innovation'.

In the present day, the economy of Winston-Salem and Forsyth County is driven by industries such as healthcare, education, and finance, with growing contributions from the technology sector. Prominent employers include Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist (formerly Wake Forest Baptist Health), Novant Health, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, Truist, Wells Fargo, Reynolds American, Hanesbrands, the City of Winston-Salem, Wake Forest University, Forsyth County, and AT&T.

The population of Winston-Salem and Forsyth County is diverse, with a mix of racial and ethnic groups. As per the U.S. Census Bureau data, as of July 1, 2022, the county had a population of over 389,157 people.

Despite its growth and vibrancy, the community faces significant challenges, with very low rates of economic mobility and wealth disparities, particularly along racial and socio-economic lines. These complex, systemic issues continue to be the focus of many people and local initiatives that aim to foster community engagement and improve life for all residents.

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Narrative

Narrative

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Narrative refers to the storytelling or representation of events, experiences, or a series of connected events in a coherent and meaningful way. It involves the construction of a plot, characters, setting, and a sequence of events that convey a particular message, theme, or understanding. Narratives play a crucial role in shaping human understanding, communication, and meaning-making processes.

Societal narratives encompass the stories, beliefs, and interpretations that shape the collective understanding and identity of a society or community. They often reflect the historical, political, and cultural values, ideologies, and norms of a particular group or nation. Societal narratives can include historical accounts, myths, legends, national narratives, and shared cultural symbols that contribute to a shared sense of identity and shape social cohesion.

Cultural narratives are specific to a particular culture or cultural group. They encompass the stories, rituals, customs, and traditions that are passed down through generations within a cultural community. Cultural narratives play a crucial role in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage, values, and knowledge. They help to define the identity and worldview of a cultural group, providing a sense of belonging and continuity.

These societal and cultural narratives have a significant impact on how individuals and communities perceive themselves and others. They shape collective memory, influence social norms, and can perpetuate dominant power structures or challenge them. Societal and cultural narratives can reinforce stereotypes, biases, and inequalities, but they can also be powerful tools for cultural preservation, social change, and fostering understanding among diverse groups.

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS)

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS)

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) is a public school district located in Forsyth County, North Carolina. WS/FCS is one of the largest school systems in North Carolina and serves the city of Winston-Salem and the surrounding Forsyth County area.

The district comprises a number of different types of schools, including elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and specialized schools. It offers a variety of academic and extracurricular programs to meet the diverse needs and interests of its student population.

WS/FCS's mission is to provide a high-quality and equitable education that prepares each student to be a responsible citizen and a lifelong learner. It is committed to creating a safe, inclusive, and engaging learning environment where all students can thrive.

The district's student population is diverse, reflecting the racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity of the wider community. As with many urban districts in the U.S., WS/FCS faces challenges related to educational equity, including achievement gaps among different student groups, school funding disparities, and the need for culturally responsive education.

The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.

Sources:

  • Davis, L., & Rice, W. (1999). African Americans in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County: A pictorial history. Walsworth Publishing. 
  • Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools. (n.d.). Official Website. Retrieved from https://www.wsfcs.k12.nc.us/
  • North Carolina Department of Public Instruction (n.d.) Official Website. Retrieved from https://www.dpi.nc.gov/
HIghway 52

HIghway 52

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

The construction of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, North Carolina, stands as a poignant example of how historical urban planning and transportation policies have contributed to racial segregation and disenfranchisement in American cities. This highway, known as the physical dividing line in Winston-Salem, serves as a barrier that separates predominantly Black communities from predominantly white ones.

During the mid-20th century, a period marked by the development of interstates and major highways, decision-makers often located these transportation projects in low-income and predominantly Black neighborhoods due, in part, to lower property values in these areas, reducing the cost of land acquisition for construction.

However, the placement of such highways had detrimental effects on the affected communities. In the case of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, it led to the displacement of Black residents, destruction of homes and businesses, and fragmentation of established Black neighborhoods. Moreover, the highway's presence effectively cut off these communities from the city's economic, educational, and social resources, contributing to racial and socio-economic segregation. The design of the highway, including limited crossing points, discouraged movement between the predominantly Black and white areas of the city.

In 1948, North Carolina experienced a severe polio outbreak, providing local authorities in Winston-Salem with an opportunity for urban renewal. Utilizing rhetoric that scapegoated poor Black neighborhoods as the source of the disease, city leaders sought to reshape Winston-Salem both physically and mentally. By framing these neighborhoods as a supposed threat to the white way of life, policymakers used terms like "urban renewal," "uplift," and "slum clearance" to justify removing the city's poorest Black residents. 

This process displaced Black communities like Monkey Bottom, The Shakes, and Columbian Heights to pave the way for commercial property, industrial space, and the construction of Highway 52. 

Columbian Heights is the neighborhood immediately surrounding Winston-Salem State University. It was founded by Simon Green Atkins in the 1890s and it was part of his twin vision of promoting Black education and homeownership. During the age of Jim Crow, Columbian Heights was home to many Black professionals: teachers, business owners, firemen, etc. It was a stable Black neighborhood.

The urban renewal policies of this era effectively contributed to racial segregation and the disenfranchisement of Black communities. Highway 52, cutting through East Winston's Black and brown neighborhoods, symbolizes the institutionalization of separate and unequal geography, perpetuating historical disparities in Winston-Salem.

Today, Highway 52 remains a stark symbol of racial segregation within Forsyth County. The predominantly Black neighborhoods on the eastern side of the highway face economic and social challenges, including higher poverty rates, under-resourced schools, and limited access to healthcare facilities. Conversely, the predominantly white neighborhoods on the western side generally enjoy better access to resources and opportunities.

While it is essential to acknowledge that many other factors contribute to these disparities, the role of urban planning decisions, such as the construction of Highway 52, should not be underestimated. They serve as enduring physical manifestations of systemic racism, further entrenching segregation and inequality in the community. Efforts to address these historic injustices are ongoing, but significant challenges remain.

Sources:

Health Insurance

Health Insurance

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Health insurance refers to a contractual agreement between an individual or a group and an insurance provider, which offers financial coverage for medical expenses. It aims to mitigate the financial burden associated with healthcare services, including doctor visits, hospital stays, medications, and preventive care. Health insurance policies typically involve the payment of regular premiums in exchange for access to a specified range of covered healthcare services.

The relationship between health insurance and Black communities in the US is multifaceted. Studies have shown that Black individuals and communities face disparities in health insurance coverage compared to their white counterparts. Factors contributing to these disparities include systemic inequities, socioeconomic disadvantages, discriminatory practices, and barriers to access.

African Americans have historically experienced higher uninsured rates, which can lead to reduced access to healthcare services, delayed medical care, and increased financial strain. Lack of health insurance can contribute to health disparities, as individuals without coverage may forego or delay necessary medical treatments or preventive care.

Efforts to address health insurance disparities in Black communities have focused on expanding access to affordable coverage through initiatives like the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and Medicaid expansion. These policies aim to increase health insurance enrollment, reduce financial barriers, and improve access to necessary healthcare services for underserved populations, including Black communities.

Sources:

Griot

Griot

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

A griot is a West African storyteller, historian, musician, and oral tradition keeper who holds an esteemed role within their community. Griots are responsible for preserving and transmitting the history, cultural heritage, and values of their people through oral narratives, songs, poetry, and music. They serve as custodians of collective memory, passing down knowledge from generation to generation and playing a vital role in preserving the cultural identity and continuity of their community.

Sources:

  • Niane, D. T. (2006). Sundiata: An Epic of Old Mali. Pearson.
  • Skinner, E. P. (2001). Griots and Griottes: Masters of Words and Music. Indiana University Press.
Gentrification

Gentrification

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Gentrification is a complex socio-economic process that involves the transformation of historically underinvested neighborhoods due to an influx of higher-income residents and real estate development. This process can lead to economic revitalization and the improvement of neighborhood amenities, but it often disproportionately impacts marginalized communities, particularly Black communities.

For Black communities, gentrification often leads to displacement due to skyrocketing housing prices and property taxes. It can result in the erasure of cultural history as long-standing businesses and community centers may be replaced by new development tailored to the preferences of wealthier newcomers. This can disrupt community networks and contribute to a sense of cultural and social loss.

Moreover, the associated economic development and increased policing that often accompany gentrification can contribute to a systemic pattern of racial inequality. Despite potential improvements in neighborhood services, the original residents, often people of color, may not reap the benefits if they're displaced or economically marginalized in the process.

Sources:

  • Anderson, E. (2011). The Cosmopolitan Canopy: Race and Civility in Everyday Life. W.W. Norton & Company.
  • Hyra, D. (2017). Race, Class, and Politics in the Cappuccino City. University of Chicago Press.
  • Pattillo, M. (2007). Black on the Block: The Politics of Race and Class in the City. University of Chicago Press.
  • Marcuse, P. (1985). Gentrification, Abandonment, and Displacement: Connections, Causes, and Policy Responses in New York City. Journal of Urban and Contemporary Law, 28(1), 195-240.
Expenses

Expenses

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

From a personal or household perspective, expenses refer to the money spent on goods and services for daily living. These typically include costs for housing (such as rent or mortgage payments), food, transportation, healthcare, clothing, education, utilities (like electricity, water, and internet), entertainment, and savings for future needs or emergencies.

Food Desert

Food Desert

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

A food desert (also referred to as food access in this report) refers to an area, typically in urban or rural settings, where residents have limited access to affordable and nutritious food options. These areas are often characterized by a lack of grocery stores, supermarkets, or fresh food retailers within a reasonable distance. As a result, individuals living in food deserts face challenges in obtaining healthy and culturally appropriate food choices, leading to higher reliance on unhealthy processed foods and limited access to fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

There is a notable connection between food deserts and Black communities in the United States. Studies have shown that predominantly Black neighborhoods are more likely to be food deserts, facing limited access to quality supermarkets and fresh food retailers compared to predominantly white neighborhoods. This disparity can be attributed to a range of factors, including systemic racism, socioeconomic inequalities, discriminatory retail practices, and historical disinvestment in Black communities.

Addressing the issue of food deserts in Black communities requires comprehensive approaches, such as increasing the availability of affordable and nutritious food options, supporting community gardens and farmers' markets, implementing policies to incentivize supermarkets to locate in underserved areas, and promoting urban agriculture initiatives.

Quantitative sections of this report describe census tracts as food deserts if they meet the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) definition of low-income and have limited access to supermarkets. Limited access to supermarkets is defined as either 1) there being more than 100 housing units that do not have a vehicle and are more than half a minle from the closest supermarket or 2) many residents are more than 20 miles away from the closest supermarket. The USDA defines a census tract as low income if it has a poverty rate of 20% or higher or if the mediian income for that tract is less than 80% of the median income for the state or metropolitan area.

Equity

Equity

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Equity refers to the state, quality, or ideal of being just, impartial, and fair. The concept is often associated with social justice, and it's applied in considerations of fairness and justice within social, economic, health, and educational contexts, among others.

In practical terms, equity is about ensuring people have access to the same opportunities, but recognizing that advantages and barriers exist for different people. Therefore, it's not about promoting equal treatment for all, but rather equitable treatment that acknowledges and adjusts for these differences.

In education, for instance, equity would mean that personal or social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin, or family background are not obstacles to achieving educational potential and that all individuals are provided the support needed to realize their full potential.

In health, equity refers to the absence of avoidable or remediable differences among groups of people, whether those groups are defined socially, economically, demographically, or geographically.

In economic context, equity concerns the distribution of assets, resources, and income, and is often tied to concepts of economic fairness and justice.

Economic Mobility

Economic Mobility

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Economic mobility in the United States, particularly upward mobility, has been on a decline over the past few decades. Upward mobility refers to the ability of an individual or family to improve their economic status within their lifetime or from one generation to the next. This decline in mobility has had significant implications for the overall wealth and income disparity in the country, and the impact has been especially pronounced for Black communities.

In the U.S., wealth has been highly concentrated among white households, which on average hold about six times as much wealth as Black households. A number of factors contribute to this disparity, including systemic racism, discriminatory housing policies, unequal educational opportunities, and labor market discrimination.

Systemic racism and discriminatory policies like redlining have historically limited Black families' access to wealth-building opportunities like homeownership. For example, the Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing, was only enacted in 1968, and the effects of decades of legal housing discrimination continue to be felt today. Due to these and other factors, Black households are less likely to own their homes compared to white households, limiting their opportunities to build wealth.

Inequality in education further contributes to the decline in economic mobility for Black communities. Schools with predominantly Black student populations tend to have fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, and lower overall funding than schools serving mainly white students. This can affect the quality of education and limit the opportunities for students from these schools, leading to lower earnings in adulthood.

The impact of labor market discrimination should also not be underestimated. Studies have shown that Black individuals are often paid less than their white counterparts for doing the same jobs and are less likely to be hired for certain positions or promoted within a company.

Sources:

  • Anderson, C. (2001). PowerNomics: The National Plan to Empower Black America. PowerNomics Corporation of America.
  • Lee Enterprises, Dataherald. (2023, July 15). Interactive: Charts that show how the economy is performing in Winston-Salem and North Carolina. Winston-Salem Journal. https://journalnow.com/news/local/interactive-charts-that-show-how-the-economy-is-performing-in-winston-salem-and-north-carolina/article_4ffd5e65-3549-53df-81d0-db7f3510a833.html
  • Coates, T. (2014).The Case for Reparations, The Atlantic, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2014/06/the-case-for-reparations/361631/
  • Chetty, R., Hendren, N., Jones, M. R., & Porter, S. R. (2020). Race and Economic Opportunity in the United States: An Intergenerational Perspective. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 135(2), 711–783. https://doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjz042
  • Hamilton, D., & Darity, W. (2017). The political economy of education, financial literacy, and the racial wealth gap. Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Review, First Quarter 2017, 99(1), 59-76.
  • Bhutta, N., Chang, A. C., Dettling, L. J., & Hsu, J. W. (2020). Disparities in Wealth by Race and Ethnicity in the 2019 Survey of Consumer Finances. FEDS Notes. Washington: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. https://doi.org/10.17016/2380-7172.2797
Discrimination

Discrimination

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Discrimination refers to the unjust or prejudiced treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, sex, or disability. In the context of Black peoples and communities, both historically and in contemporary society, discrimination often manifests as systemic biases and prejudice ingrained within social, political, and economic systems. These discriminatory practices and attitudes can impact various aspects of life, including employment, education, housing, healthcare, and the criminal justice system.

Historically, Black people have faced formalized systems of discrimination, such as slavery, segregation, and Jim Crow laws in the United States. These legal and societal structures enforced racial hierarchy, limited economic and educational opportunities, and severely constrained civil and political rights.

In contemporary times, the legacies of these discriminatory practices continue to manifest in systemic and institutional forms of discrimination. For example, in housing, the practice of redlining in the mid-20th century deprived Black communities of fair housing opportunities and access to loans, contributing to enduring wealth and neighborhood disparities. In the criminal justice system, racial profiling and biases in policing and sentencing disproportionately affect Black individuals.

In the labor market, studies have found persistent racial discrimination, with Black job applicants receiving fewer callbacks than equally qualified white applicants. In healthcare, racial disparities persist, with Black patients often receiving lower quality care than white patients.

Sources:

  • Alexander, M. (2012). The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Colorblindness. The New Press.
  • Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Harvard University Press.
Diaspora

Diaspora

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Diaspora refers to the dispersion or migration of a particular group of people from their original homeland or ancestral region to various locations around the world. It typically involves the spread of a community or culture across different geographical areas, often due to factors such as colonization, forced migration, or voluntary movement. Diaspora communities often maintain a collective consciousness and maintain connections with their ancestral homeland, while simultaneously adapting to and influencing the societies in which they reside.

Sources:

  • Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of diaspora: Contesting identities. Routledge.
  • Cohen, R. (2008). Global diasporas: An introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Demographics

Demographics

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Demographics refer to the statistical characteristics of a population. These characteristics can include things like age, sex, income, education level, employment status, ethnicity, religion, and marital status. Researchers and marketers often use demographic information to understand more about a population's characteristics, needs, habits, and trends.

Deliberative Dialogue

Deliberative Dialogue

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Deliberative dialogue, also known as deliberative discussion or deliberative conversation, refers to a structured and inclusive process that brings individuals together to engage in respectful and thoughtful conversations on complex issues. It involves creating a space where participants can share diverse perspectives, examine multiple viewpoints, and explore potential solutions or actions through open and constructive dialogue.

The purpose of deliberative dialogue is to foster democratic participation, informed decision-making, and collective problem-solving. It aims to deepen understanding, build consensus, and generate recommendations or actions that reflect the shared values and interests of the participants. Deliberative dialogues often involve facilitated discussions, guided by principles of active listening, mutual respect, and the exploration of common ground.

Culture

Culture

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses the beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, traditions, and artifacts that characterize a particular group of people. It refers to the shared patterns of thought, communication, and behavior that are learned and transmitted across generations. Culture influences how individuals perceive the world, interact with others, and make sense of their experiences. It includes various dimensions such as language, religion, social norms, arts, cuisine, clothing, and rituals, among others. Culture plays a crucial role in shaping individual and collective identities, providing a framework for understanding and navigating the world.

Black culture, specifically referring to the diverse cultures and traditions of Black people, is rich and multifaceted, encompassing a range of experiences, histories, and expressions. Black culture is rooted in the experiences of African and African diaspora communities, forged through resilience, resistance, and a quest for liberation. It encompasses diverse elements, including but not limited to language, music (such as jazz, blues, gospel, hip-hop, and reggae), dance (such as various African and African diaspora dance forms), visual arts, literature, cuisine, fashion, spirituality, and social practices. Black culture is characterized by a strong sense of community, creativity, innovation, and the preservation of cultural heritage. It serves as a source of pride, identity, and empowerment for Black individuals and communities.

Sources:

  • Bennett, B. (2015, July 15). Ta-Nehisi Coates and a Generation Waking Up. The New Yorker. Retrieved August 2, 2023, from https://www.newyorker.com/culture/cultural-comment/ta-nehisi-coates-and-a-generation-waking-up
  • Hofstede, G. (2010). The culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
  • Hall, S. (Ed.). (1997). Representation: Cultural representations and signifying practices (Vol. 2). Sage.
  • Herskovits, M. J. (1941). The myth of the Negro past. Beacon Press.
Cultural Competency

Cultural Competency

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Cultural competency is a comprehensive framework that encompasses knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to effectively engage and interact with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. It goes beyond simple awareness of cultural differences and involves a deeper understanding and appreciation of various cultural norms, values, beliefs, practices, and experiences.

At its core, cultural competency involves recognizing the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals, irrespective of their cultural background, and actively working to reduce biases, stereotypes, and discrimination. It includes developing the knowledge to understand the historical, social, and systemic factors that shape different cultures and the impact of culture on individuals' lives.

Cultural competency also encompasses developing the skills to communicate and interact respectfully and effectively with individuals from diverse cultures. This includes being able to adapt communication styles, understand non-verbal cues, and navigate cultural nuances. It involves actively listening, showing empathy, and demonstrating cultural sensitivity in order to build trust and rapport.

Moreover, cultural competency requires the cultivation of attitudes and beliefs that promote inclusivity, openness, and a willingness to learn from others. It involves recognizing and challenging one's own biases and assumptions, reflecting on cultural differences without judgment, and embracing diversity as a source of strength and enrichment.

By embracing cultural competency, individuals and organizations can foster inclusive environments, provide equitable services, and promote social justice. It plays a critical role in various fields, such as healthcare, education, social work, and business, where effective engagement with diverse populations is essential.

Sources:

  • hooks, b. (1994). Teaching to transgress: Education as the practice of freedom. Routledge.
  • Cross, T. L., Bazron, B. J., Dennis, K. W., & Isaacs, M. R. (1989). Towards a culturally competent system of care: A monograph on effective services for minority children who are severely emotionally disturbed. Georgetown University Child Development Center, CASSP Technical Assistance Center.
  • Sue, D. W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R. J. (1992). Multicultural counseling competencies and standards: A call to the profession. Journal of Counseling & Development, 70(4), 477-486. https://www.academia.edu/1359444/Multicultural_counseling_competencies_and_standards_A_call_to_the_profession
  • Betancourt, J. R., Green, A. R., Carrillo, J. E., & Ananeh-Firempong, O., 2nd (2003). Defining cultural competence: a practical framework for addressing racial/ethnic disparities in health and health care. Public health reports (Washington, D.C. : 1974), 118(4), 293–302. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12815076/
Community

Community

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Community is a dynamic and complex social construct that encompasses more than just a group of individuals. It is characterized by shared values, norms, customs, and a sense of belonging. Communities can be formed based on various factors, including geographic proximity, cultural or ethnic ties, shared interests, or common goals. They serve as platforms for social interaction, support, and collective action. Within a community, individuals form relationships, build social networks, and engage in reciprocal exchanges, contributing to a sense of cohesion and mutual support.

One crucial aspect of community is the development of a "sense of community," which refers to the subjective experience of belongingness, connectedness, and identification with a particular group. This sense of community arises from shared experiences, shared goals, and a feeling of being valued and accepted within the community.

Communities play a vital role in shaping individuals' identities, providing social support, and fostering a sense of purpose and meaning. They create spaces for collaboration, cooperation, and collective problem-solving. Communities can also serve as agents of change, advocating for social justice, and addressing community needs and concerns.

It is important to recognize that communities are not homogeneous entities. They are diverse, comprising individuals with different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences. Community development and engagement efforts should strive to be inclusive, embracing diversity and promoting equity to ensure that all members have a voice and access to resources and opportunities.

In summary, community encompasses the social, cultural, and relational aspects of groups of individuals who come together around shared interests, values, and a sense of belonging. It provides a foundation for social cohesion, support, collective action, and the development of a shared identity and purpose.

Sources:

Colonialism

Colonialism

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Colonialism is a system of political governance or economic exploitation in which a powerful country (often referred to as the colonizer or metropole) exerts control and influence over a weaker country or region (known as the colony).

Historically, colonialism involved the migration of people from the colonizing country to the new territory, often leading to a significant alteration in the demographics of the colony. These settlers often established communities that mirrored the social and political structures of their home country, sometimes completely supplanting indigenous populations and cultures.

In the economic dimension, colonialism often involved the extraction and exportation of resources from the colonized territory to the benefit of the colonizing power. This could include raw materials like minerals, agricultural products, or human labor, often facilitated through systems of forced labor or enslavement.

Colonialism also had profound cultural and societal impacts on the colonized territories. The colonizers frequently imposed their language, religion, and societal norms on the local populations. Over time, these practices often resulted in the loss or marginalization of indigenous cultures, traditions, and languages.

Colonialism also extends to the realm of knowledge and academia, where Eurocentric perspectives have been historically dominant. This is often referred to as epistemic or intellectual colonialism, which marginalizes non-Western knowledge systems and epistemologies.

Colonialism is often intertwined with imperialism, another system of domination and control. While the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they do have distinct meanings: colonialism is often viewed as the practice or system through which imperialism achieves its goals.

Contemporary post-colonial and decolonial studies critically examine the impacts of colonialism, seeking to challenge its legacies and address its ongoing effects, particularly in the fields of education, research, culture, and societal structures.

See also: Decolonizing

Collective Work and Responsibility

Collective Work and Responsibility

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Collective work and responsibility, often referred to as ‘Ujima’ or ‘active and informed togetherness in matters of common interest,’ is a recognition and respect for the fact that, without collective work and struggle, progress is impossible and liberation is unthinkable. It supports the assumption that ‘African’ is not merely an identity, but a destiny, a duty, a responsibility. Our collective identity in the long is a collective future. As a result, there as need for us as self conscious and committed people to shape our future with our own minds and hands and share the struggle together.

Sources:

  • Karenga, M. (1997). Kwanzaa: A Celebration of Family, Community, and Culture. University of Sankore Press.
Child Care

Child Care

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Child care is a comprehensive term that encompasses the care, supervision, and education of a child or multiple children at a time. This service is typically provided to children ranging from infancy (approximately six weeks old) up to thirteen years of age. Child care can occur in various settings and is often classified based on these settings, such as in-home care, family child care (caregivers provide care in their own homes), and child care centers.

Child care services often extend beyond just watching the child and can include educational activities, organized play, and social interactions with peers. In many cases, child care providers also play an important role in the early education of children, helping to shape their social, emotional, and cognitive development. Additionally, child care providers often deliver basic needs such as meals and nap times and can help older children with homework and other school-related tasks.

Black History

Black History

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM 

Black history refers to the historical experiences, contributions, achievements, and struggles of Black people, communities, and cultures. It encompasses the exploration and recognition of Black individuals' roles in shaping local, national, and global history across various fields, including politics, arts, sciences, social movements, and more. Black history emphasizes the unique experiences, resilience, and cultural heritage of Black communities and serves to challenge the historical exclusion and underrepresentation of Black narratives within mainstream historical accounts.

Sources:

  • Franklin, J. H. (1994). From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans. McGraw-Hill Education.
  • Woodson, C. G. (1933). The Mis-Education of the Negro. Associated Publishers.
  • Gates Jr., H. L., & Yacovone, D. (Eds.). (2009). African American National Biography. Oxford University Press.
Black Liberation

Black Liberation

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Black Liberation is one of the Tier 1 Glossary Terms that was referred to Action4Equity’s Policy Committe for review. Given the centrality of the concept of Black Liberation to the focus of this report, and the extensive definition, sources, and reading list provided by the Policy Commitee, this term has been afforded its own page in the report. Go to the Black Liberation page.

Wealth

Wealth

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Wealth, from a personal or household perspective, refers to the total value of assets owned by an individual or family, minus any debts or liabilities. It encompasses various forms of financial resources and tangible assets, including cash, savings, investments, real estate, vehicles, and valuable possessions. Wealth represents accumulated resources that can provide financial security, opportunities, and a foundation for future economic well-being. It is a measure of an individual's or household's financial stability and capacity to meet present and future needs.

Learn more:

Teacher Experience

Teacher Experience

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Teacher experience generally refers to the number of years a teacher has been teaching or working in education. It is often used as a measure of a teacher's professional maturity and competence. Many studies have shown that teacher experience can significantly impact student achievement, especially in the first few years of teaching as teachers learn to manage their classrooms effectively and develop their teaching style.

A more nuanced understanding of teacher experience might also include aspects like:

  • Experience teaching a specific grade level or subject: A teacher may be more effective when teaching a grade level or subject that they have significant experience with.
  • Experience with a particular student population: A teacher may have developed specific skills or strategies for working with students who have learning disabilities, English language learners, or students in high-poverty schools.
  • Professional development experiences: This might include a teacher's experiences with continued education, such as workshops, courses, or conferences, which can help teachers stay up-to-date with best practices in education.

While teacher experience is associated with effectiveness, it's also important to note that it's not the only factor. Other factors, such as teacher's subject matter knowledge, instructional skills, and classroom management skills, are also critical to student success.

Learn more:

Teacher Effectiveness

Teacher Effectiveness

Teacher effectiveness refers to the ability of a teacher to promote positive educational outcomes among their students. There are multiple ways to measure teacher effectiveness, including student achievement growth, observation-based assessments of teacher practice, and surveys of students' experiences in the classroom.

Key aspects of teacher effectiveness often include:

  • Strong content knowledge and teaching skills.
  • Ability to establish a productive classroom environment.
  • Use of effective instructional strategies that engage students and support their learning.
  • Ability to assess student understanding and adapt instruction accordingly.
  • Ability to foster positive relationships with students, parents, and colleagues.
  • Commitment to continuous professional growth and development.
  • Establish a respectful environment for a diverse group of students.
  • Provide an environment where each child has a positive , nurturing, relationship with caring adults.
  • Teachers embrace diversity in the school community and the world.
  • Teachers treat students as individuals.
  • Teachers adapt their teaching for the benefit of students with special needs.
  • Teachers work collaboratively with families and significant adults in the lives of their students.

Learn More:

Sustainability (financial)

Sustainability (financial)

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Financial sustainability refers to the ability of an individual, organization, or system to maintain and manage its financial resources over the long term. For individuals, it means having income that exceeds expenses, enabling savings or investments for the future. For organizations or systems, it involves having sound financial management practices, diverse and reliable sources of revenue, and the capacity to withstand economic shocks or downturns.

Learn more:

Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Violence

Structural, Systemic, and Institutional Violence

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Structural Violence

This refers to harm caused by systemic social structures, such as economic and political systems, that lead to social inequalities like poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and other forms of discrimination. It's often invisible because it's not tied to specific individuals or groups but is embedded in the structures that govern society.

Systemic Violence

This refers to violence that is ingrained and persistent within systems and structures in society. It's not an act of one individual against another, but rather, it's a series of practices and policies in a social or political system that cause physical, psychological, or economic harm to a specific group. Systemic violence often refers to the biases that are deeply embedded in such systems that disproportionately affect marginalized groups.

Institutional Violence

This refers to harmful practices that are systematic and routine within institutions, such as discrimination in workplaces, schools, prisons, and other organizations. It's violence that is seemingly normalized as it's a part of the established structure and protocol within the institution.

Statistical Significance

Statistical Significance

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Statistical significance is term used in research to indicate that the results are not likely due to random chance. When a finding is statistically significant, it suggests that there's a high likelihood that the result is true and not just a fluke or coincidence. It's a process researchers use to determine if what they found is ‘real’ or if it might have just happened by accident.

Social Justice

Social Justice

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Social justice refers to the fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society. It is based on the principles of equality, human rights, and the pursuit of a just and inclusive society. Social justice aims to address systemic inequalities, discrimination, and oppression to ensure that all individuals have access to basic human needs, rights, and opportunities regardless of their social, economic, or cultural background.

Social Construct

Social Construct

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

A social construct, in the context of social sciences and philosophy, refers to a concept or perception of something that is 'constructed' within a society or by individuals in a society. It's a theoretical concept used to understand how societies ascribe meaning to behaviors, interactions, events, and people.

Social constructs are often seen as an agreed-upon collective viewpoint of society, and they are created and maintained by people. They are not inherent natural or objective realities but are perceived as real because of society's consensus. These constructs can vary across cultures and societies, and can change over time.

For example, gender is considered a social construct because society has created specific roles and expectations for men and women, and these roles can vary widely in different cultures or historical periods.

Learn More:

  • California Newsreel (2003). Race the Power of an Illusion. Episode 2, The Story We Tell.
Social Capital

Social Capital

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Social capital refers to the connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It's the collective value of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other ("norms of reciprocity"). In other words, social capital is the value that we get from our relationships with each other.

It encompasses resources embedded in a social structure that can be accessed or mobilized in purposive actions. It includes various aspects such as information potential (access to data and knowledge), influence (exertion of control), social credentials (certifications of a person's social character), and reinforcement of identity and recognition.

School Funding

School Funding

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

School funding refers to the financing that is allocated for the operation, maintenance, and improvement of schools. It is critical for providing quality education, including hiring and retaining competent teachers, providing necessary classroom resources, maintaining facilities, and supporting extracurricular activities. The amount and distribution of school funding can have a significant impact on educational outcomes and equity.

The main sources of school funding in the United States typically include:

  1. Local funding, primarily from property taxes, which can vary significantly between wealthier and poorer neighborhoods.
  2. State funding, derived from income taxes, sales taxes, and other revenues, usually allocated according to formulas that consider factors such as the number of students, the local district's ability to generate revenue, and sometimes, the specific needs of certain student populations (e.g., low-income students, English learners).
  3. Federal funding, which typically accounts for a smaller portion of overall school funding, is often targeted toward specific populations such as students from low-income families, students with disabilities, and English learners.

Equity in school funding remains a major issue as schools in wealthier areas tend to have more local resources, leading to disparities in educational opportunities and outcomes.

Safety Nets

Safety Nets

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

From a financial perspective, 'safety nets' are mechanisms put in place to protect individuals, families, and communities from economic shocks and financial hardship. These can include government programs like unemployment insurance, welfare benefits, or social security, which are designed to provide a minimum level of income or support to those in need.

Safety nets can also refer to financial protections like insurance policies, savings accounts, or other financial assets that individuals or families can draw on in times of need. In a broader sense, safety nets can include community-based or informal networks of support, like help from family or friends.

In all these forms, the purpose of financial safety nets is to reduce economic risks and vulnerabilities and to prevent poverty or financial catastrophe in the event of job loss, illness, disability, or other adverse life events.

Resilience

Resilience

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Resilience refers to the ability to adapt, recover, and bounce back in the face of adversity, challenges, or significant life stressors. It involves the capacity to maintain mental, emotional, and physical well-being, as well as positive functioning, in the midst of difficult circumstances. Resilience is characterized by the ability to harness internal and external resources, draw upon personal strengths, and cultivate coping strategies to navigate and overcome adversity.

Revenue

Revenue

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

At the personal or household level, revenue refers to all the money that is brought into the household from various sources before any deductions or expenses. This could include salaries or wages from jobs, returns from investments, income from self-employment, rental income, social security or pension payments, alimony, and any other sources of income.

It's important to note that this is a gross revenue figure. To find the net income (the amount available for saving or spending), one would need to subtract any expenses or costs such as taxes, living expenses, loan repayments, and other liabilities.

Representation

Representation

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Representation refers to the act or process of depicting, reflecting, or presenting individuals, groups, or concepts in a manner that accurately portrays their diversity, experiences, perspectives, and interests. It involves providing a voice, visibility, and inclusion for historically marginalized or underrepresented groups in various domains, such as media, politics, education, and decision-making processes.

Learn more:

  • Crenshaw, K. (2016 ). Critical Race Theory in Education: All God’s Children Got a Song. Routledge. .
Qualitative Data

Qualitative Data

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Qualitative data refers to non-numerical information that is often descriptive and more difficult to measure than quantitative data. It encompasses various types of information such as personal experiences, descriptions, behaviors, emotions, beliefs, and cultural phenomena, among other aspects. Qualitative data is typically collected through methods like interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.

Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data seeks to explain 'how' and 'why' a particular phenomenon is occurring rather than 'how much' or 'how many', which is the focus of quantitative data. The goal of qualitative research is to gain a deep understanding of a specific organization, event, or phenomenon.

Quantitative Data

Quantitative Data

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Quantitative data refers to numerical information that can be measured or counted. It is often associated with structured data collection methods such as surveys, experiments, or observations, and can be represented statistically. This type of data is used when a researcher aims to quantify variables and generalize results from a sample to a population of interest.

Quantitative data can be further categorized as either discrete or continuous. Discrete data are countable values, often integers, such as the number of students in a class. Continuous data are measurable quantities that often include fractions or decimals, such as the weight of an individual or the temperature of a room.

Purposive Sampling

Purposive Sampling

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique used in research to select participants based on specific characteristics or criteria that align with the research objectives. It involves intentionally selecting individuals or cases that possess relevant knowledge, expertise, or experiences related to the research topic. The goal of purposive sampling is to obtain a sample that can provide rich and relevant information to address the research questions or objectives effectively.

Researchers employ purposive sampling when they seek to target specific groups or individuals who possess unique perspectives or characteristics that are essential to the research study. This sampling method allows for the intentional selection of participants who can contribute valuable insights, diverse viewpoints, or specialized knowledge to enhance the understanding of the research topic.

Poverty Rate

Poverty Rate

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

The poverty rate is the percentage of the population whose family or individual income falls below the poverty line, as determined by a government body. For instance, in the United States, the poverty line is established by the U.S. Census Bureau and varies based on family size and the ages of its members. The poverty rate is an economic indicator often used to assess the degree of economic hardship or wellbeing within a specific geographic area or among certain population groups.

While the poverty rate provides an important snapshot of economic hardship, it has been subject to several critiques. One of the primary critiques is that the poverty threshold may not accurately reflect the contemporary costs of living, especially as it varies across different regions. Additionally, it does not account for other forms of wealth or assets that a family or individual might possess, nor does it take into account expenses such as healthcare, child care, or transportation that can significantly impact one's disposable income. Moreover, the poverty line is typically set as a fixed amount, which may not capture those experiencing income volatility or sporadic poverty.

Poverty

Poverty

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Poverty refers to a state of deprivation characterized by a lack of access to basic resources and necessities required for a decent standard of living. It is often associated with inadequate income, limited access to education, healthcare, housing, and other essential services. Poverty can manifest in different forms, including absolute poverty (where individuals cannot meet their basic needs) and relative poverty (where individuals have significantly fewer resources compared to others in society).

Post-secondary Education

Post-secondary Education

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Post-secondary education refers to any level of education beyond high school or secondary school. This type of education includes undergraduate and postgraduate education like colleges and universities, as well as vocational or technical schooling. It can lead to an associate, bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degree, or provide a vocational or technical training certificate.

Owner-occupied Home

Owner-occupied Home

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

An owner-occupied home is a residence that is lived in by the owner. This distinguishes from a rental property, where the owner typically leases the property to tenants, or a second home or vacation property that the owner might only live in part-time or seasonally. Owner-occupied homes are significant in terms of neighborhood stability and property maintenance, as homeowners are often more invested in their property and community compared to tenants.

Owners often have mortgages on their homes, and many mortgages have owner occupancy requirements. This means the borrower is required to live in the home as their primary residence for a certain period after closing.

Neighborhood Agriculture

Neighborhood Agriculture

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Neighborhood agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating food and growing plants within urban or suburban neighborhoods, typically on a small scale. It involves the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and sometimes even raising small livestock or poultry for personal consumption or local distribution. Neighborhood agriculture often takes place in community gardens, backyard plots, rooftop gardens, or shared urban spaces, promoting local food production and enhancing food security within communities.

Neighborhood agriculture initiatives aim to foster sustainable and resilient food systems, increase access to fresh and nutritious produce, promote community engagement, and enhance environmental sustainability in urban areas. It can contribute to building stronger social connections, improving health and nutrition, and supporting local economies.

Monolith

Monolith

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

The term "monolith" has multiple meanings depending on the context in which it is used. In general, a monolith refers to a large, singular, and uniform entity or structure that lacks diversity or variation. It can also be used metaphorically to describe a situation where there is a lack of diversity in thought, opinion, or representation.

Methodology

Methodology

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Methodology refers to the systematic approach and set of procedures employed in a research study or investigation to answer research questions, test hypotheses, or explore a particular phenomenon. It outlines the overall design, data collection methods, analysis techniques, and ethical considerations that guide the research process. The methodology provides a framework for researchers to gather reliable and valid data and draw meaningful conclusions.

Median Income

Median Income

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Median income refers to the income amount that divides a population into two equal groups, half having income above that amount, and half having income below that amount. This is different from the average, or mean, income, which is calculated by dividing the total income of a population by the number of individuals or households. Because the median is the middle point of a distribution, it is less affected by extremely high or low incomes and can provide a more accurate picture of a population's typical income.

Matriculation

Matriculation

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Matriculate is a verb that refers to the process of being formally admitted or enrolled into a college or university, often as an undergraduate student. After the enrollment process is complete, a student is said to have matriculated at that institution.

The term can also be used more generally to refer to the progression from one grade or level to another within an educational system.

Marginalization

Marginalization

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Marginalization refers to the process by which individuals or groups are pushed to the edges or periphery of society, often resulting in their exclusion from the resources, opportunities, and power structures that are available to the dominant or privileged groups in society. Marginalized individuals or groups may experience social, economic, and political disadvantages, leading to their limited participation and influence within society.

Margin of Error

Margin of Error

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Margin of error is a measure used in statistics to express the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results. It shows how much the results might differ from the actual or real value being measured. For example, if a survey result is 50% with a margin of error of 3%, the real result could be anywhere between 47% and 53%.

Livable Income

Livable Income

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

"Livable Income," also often referred to as a "living wage", is the income level that allows an individual or family to afford adequate shelter, food, and other basic necessities. The goal of a livable income is to ensure that individuals or families can live above the poverty line and meet their basic needs without government assistance. The amount considered as a livable income can vary greatly depending on geographical location, family size, and specific needs.

Labor Union

Labor Union

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

A labor union, also known as a trade union, is an organized association of workers, often in a particular industry, that collectively advocate for their rights and interests. Labor unions aim to negotiate with employers over issues related to working conditions, wages, hours, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights. They often work through collective bargaining and industrial action, and they also provide legal representation and support to their members in disputes with management over violations of labor rights.

See also: ‘Right to Work’ State

Justice

Justice

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Justice, a concept with multiple dimensions and interpretations, is generally understood as moral rightness based on ethics, law, fairness, and equity. It involves the enactment of both rewards and punishments to maintain this sense of rightness and legality. There are several categories into which justice can be divided.

Distributive justice refers to the equitable allocation of assets, resources, and privileges across society. It focuses on issues such as the fair distribution of wealth, access to resources, and socioeconomic inequalities.

Retributive justice, on the other hand, is concerned with the just imposition of punishments or penalties on those who have violated laws or rules. It's grounded in the principle of proportionality, where the punishment must be proportionate to the crime committed.

A third category, restorative justice, shifts the focus towards reconciliation, healing, and the restoration of harmony. Rather than emphasizing punishment, restorative justice seeks to repair the harm caused by a wrongdoing, involving all stakeholders – the offender, the victim, and the community – in the process of achieving justice.

Finally, procedural justice refers to the fairness and transparency of processes leading to outcomes. It does not directly concern the distribution of resources, but rather the procedures and processes that dictate these distributions. It underscores the importance of impartiality, openness, and respect for the rights of all parties involved in decision-making processes.

In all its forms, the concept of justice remains central to societal cohesion, maintaining a balance between individual rights and communal harmony.

Institution

Institution

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

An institution refers to an established organization, structure, or system that performs specific functions and serves a particular purpose within society. Institutions can encompass formal entities, such as government bodies, educational institutions, and legal systems, as well as informal systems and practices that shape social interactions and behavior.

In the context of systemic injustices, institutions play a crucial role. They can perpetuate or challenge existing inequalities and power imbalances within society. Certain institutions may have embedded biases, discriminatory practices, or unequal distribution of resources, resulting in systemic injustices that disproportionately affect marginalized and disadvantaged groups.

Inflation

Inflation

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Inflation is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to limit inflation — and avoid deflation — in order to keep the economy running smoothly.

In other words, inflation is an economic term that refers to an environment of generally rising prices of goods and services within a particular economy. As general prices rise, with all things unchanged, people tend to buy less as their money has less purchasing power. Over time, inflation erodes the purchasing power of money. That is, you would need more money to buy the same amount of goods or services in the future compared to now.

Income

Income

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

From a personal or household perspective, income refers to the total amount of money earned by an individual or a household over a specific period of time. This income can come from various sources such as salaries or wages from employment, profits from businesses or self-employment, returns from investments (like dividends or interest), rental income from properties, pensions, social benefits, or any other money received on a regular basis.

Inclusion

Inclusion

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Inclusion refers to the practice of ensuring that individuals of all backgrounds, abilities, and identities are welcomed, valued, and actively involved in all aspects of social, cultural, economic, and political life. It involves creating an environment that embraces diversity, promotes equal opportunities, and respects the rights and dignity of every person. Inclusion goes beyond mere representation and seeks to remove barriers, address systemic inequalities, and foster a sense of belonging for everyone.

Identity

Identity

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Identity refers to a person's understanding, perception, and sense of self, encompassing various aspects of individuality, such as personal characteristics, beliefs, values, cultural affiliations, and social roles. It is shaped by internal factors, including personal experiences and self-reflection, as well as external influences, such as societal norms, cultural contexts, and interpersonal relationships. Identity is a dynamic and multifaceted concept that evolves over time and can intersect with other dimensions of a person's identity, such as race, gender, sexuality, and ethnicity.

See also: Intersectionality

Learn more:

Housing Quality

Housing Quality

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Housing quality refers to the overall condition and suitability of a residential dwelling, encompassing various aspects that determine its habitability, safety, comfort, and functionality. It involves evaluating the physical attributes, structural integrity, environmental conditions, and amenities of a housing unit.

Key factors considered in assessing housing quality include:

  • Structural Integrity: The soundness and stability of the building's structure, including walls, foundation, roof, and floors.
  • Safety: The presence of safety features such as smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors, fire extinguishers, secure locks, and absence of health hazards like lead-based paint, mold, or asbestos.
  • Sanitation and Hygiene: The availability of clean water, proper sewage disposal, functioning plumbing systems, and adequate waste management.
  • Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC): The provision of adequate heating, cooling, and ventilation systems to maintain a comfortable and healthy indoor environment.
  • Electrical and Lighting: The presence of reliable electrical systems, sufficient lighting, and compliance with safety standards to minimize electrical hazards.
  • Space and Amenities: The sufficiency of living space, appropriate number of rooms, access to basic amenities like kitchens, bathrooms, and necessary fixtures.
  • Accessibility: The consideration of accessibility features for individuals with disabilities or mobility limitations to ensure equal opportunity and ease of use.

Assessing and improving housing quality is vital for promoting residents' well-being, health, and overall quality of life.

Housing Cost Burden

Housing Cost Burden

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Housing cost burden (also referred to as rent cost burden in this report) refers to the situation where a household spends a significant proportion of its income on housing expenses. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) defines households that spend 30% or more of their income on housing costs as "cost-burdened," and those that spend 50% or more as "severely cost-burdened.” This can include expenses such as rent or mortgage payments, utilities, taxes, and maintenance.

A high housing cost burden can significantly impact the financial stability, health, and overall well-being of a household. When a substantial portion of income is allocated to housing, it can restrict a family's ability to invest in other necessary areas such as education, health care, transportation, or saving for emergencies, leading to financial instability and exacerbating existing poverty. The financial stress and limited resources can also have indirect effects on physical and mental health outcomes.

Moreover, severe housing cost burden can lead to housing instability and increased risk of eviction, as households may not be able to cover their housing costs in the event of unexpected expenses or a sudden job loss. This instability can disrupt children's education, as families may be forced to move frequently and may not be able to afford to live in neighborhoods with high-quality schools. Lastly, high housing cost burdens can hinder community involvement and the building of social connections, as families dealing with housing instability may struggle to access local resources and support.

Homeownership

Homeownership

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Homeownership refers to the state or condition of owning a home, rather than renting or leasing. Homeownership is often seen as a key component of the 'American Dream,' representing economic stability, independence, and an opportunity to accumulate wealth. It also impacts the social dynamics of a community, with studies suggesting homeowners are more likely to be involved in community activities and local governance.

Health

Health

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Health, as broadly defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but encompasses a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. This definition demonstrates the multidimensionality of health, incorporating various aspects of an individual's life.

Physical health relates to the functional operation of body systems and organs. It primarily focuses on an individual's physical condition, determined by factors such as regular exercise, balanced nutrition, adequate rest, and appropriate medical care. It's the most noticeable aspect of health, as most health issues manifest physically. However, it's important to note that physical health doesn't stand alone but is intertwined with all other aspects of health.

Mental health, as described by the American Psychological Association, is a state of well-being where individuals realize their own potential, can cope with ordinary life stresses, can work productively and fruitfully, and contribute to their communities. Mental health is a crucial part of overall health as it influences how we think, feel, and act. It also plays a part in determining how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is critical at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.

Emotional health refers to our capacity to handle emotions, reactions, and relationships effectively. It's the ability to identify and manage one's emotions, whether positive (like joy and love) or negative (like fear, anger, and sadness). A strong emotional health base equips us to tackle emotional challenges, recover from personal issues, and adapt to change and stress without severe disruption.

Social health encompasses our ability to establish and maintain positive relationships with others. It reflects how comfortably we interact and form meaningful relationships with other people, adapt in social situations, and our sense of belonging. Socially healthy individuals can effectively navigate and maintain comfortable relationships in family, school, work, and social situations.

Spiritual health pertains to a sense of coherence, meaning, and purpose in life. It often revolves around individuals' values, beliefs, purpose, identity, and ethics. While some people may find their spiritual health rooted in organized religion, others may seek it through other sources such as art, nature, or connections with others. Spiritual health can provide a source of strength, resilience, and comfort.

Cultural health refers to how cultural norms, practices, and values influence individuals' health behaviors and perceptions. It is about acknowledging and respecting the diverse cultural experiences that impact an individual's approach to healthcare, including how they perceive illness, how they seek and engage with health services, and the health practices and traditions they maintain.

In conclusion, the holistic perspective on health involves a comprehensive approach that considers the interplay of physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual, and cultural factors. By addressing health from this holistic perspective, individuals, communities, and healthcare providers can work towards health strategies that encompass the full range of human experiences and needs.

Financial Literacy

Financial Literacy

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Financial literacy refers to the knowledge, skills, and understanding of financial concepts, tools, and practices that enable individuals to make informed decisions regarding their personal finances. It involves the ability to effectively manage money, budget, save, invest, and navigate financial institutions. Financial literacy empowers individuals to make sound financial decisions, plan for the future, and achieve financial well-being.

Environmental Justice

Environmental Justice

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It advocates for fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, access to decision making, and recognition of community knowledge.

The concept also addresses environmental racism, a term that encapsulates the societal structures that disproportionately expose certain racial and ethnic communities to higher levels of environmental risk.

Entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Entrepreneurship is the activity of setting up a business or businesses, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit. It involves the development of a business plan, acquisition of resources, and the management of the new venture to allow it to grow and prosper. Entrepreneurs are innovators, often coming up with new ideas for products, services, or methods of doing business.

Popular Education

Popular Education

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Popular education is a form of education that emphasizes collective, participatory learning as a tool for social change. It differs from traditional education in its approach, which aims to empower learners to critically analyze their personal experiences and the societal structures that shape them. The ultimate goal is to enable individuals and communities to take collective action towards social justice.

Popular education is closely tied to the ideas of Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher who is often credited with founding the popular education movement. In his seminal work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Freire critiqued the "banking model" of education, in which knowledge is "deposited" into passive students. Instead, he argued for a problem-posing approach where learners actively engage with and question the world around them. 

See also: Education

Education

Education

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. It often takes place under the guidance of educators or teachers, but learners can also educate themselves through self-directed learning. Education can take place in formal or informal settings, and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational.

Education typically falls into three main categories:

  • Formal Education: This is the structured education system that we're familiar with, starting at preschool, and evolving into primary school, secondary school, and then possibly further education through college or university.
  • Informal Education: This type of education refers to the general learning we do in daily life. It's a lifelong process, taking place 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
  • Non-formal Education: This includes any organized educational activity outside the established formal education system. Examples could be short-term workshops or long-term community programs.

In a broader sense, education also implies the entire process of developing and training the mental and physical capacities and abilities of individuals, thereby helping them reach their full potential and preparing them to participate fully in society.

See also: Popular Education

Disparities

Disparities

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Disparities typically refer to differences or inequalities observed among subgroups of a population. These differences can occur across many dimensions, including race, gender, socioeconomic status, or geographic location.

In public health, for instance, health disparities refer to the higher burden of illness, injury, disability, or mortality experienced by one group relative to another. Similarly, educational disparities refer to inequalities in access, quality, and outcomes of education.

It's crucial to note that disparities often have significant implications for social justice because they frequently reflect systematic, societal inequalities.

Democratic Community Control

Democratic Community Control

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Democratic community control refers to a framework in which local communities have the power and agency to make decisions and govern their own resources and affairs in a democratic manner. It emphasizes the participation, engagement, and decision-making of community members in shaping policies, programs, and initiatives that directly affect their lives. This approach seeks to challenge traditional top-down models of governance and promote grassroots democracy, community autonomy, and self-determination.

Decolonizing

Decolonizing

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Decolonizing refers to the process of deconstructing the laws, structures, and ideologies set by a colonial power on a colonized region. Decolonizing challenges and changes these colonial influences, bringing the culture, history, and perspectives of the colonized into the forefront.

In academia and research, decolonizing involves critically assessing and challenging the dominant Western or Eurocentric perspectives that are often considered universal in various disciplines. It's about valuing and integrating the knowledge systems, methodologies, and perspectives of previously colonized or marginalized communities.

See also: Colonialism

Curriculum

Curriculum

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Curriculum refers to a structured plan or framework that outlines the goals, content, instructional methods, and assessments for a specific educational program or course. It encompasses the knowledge, skills, and experiences that students are expected to acquire during their educational journey. Curriculum development involves making decisions about what to teach, how to teach it, and how to assess student learning to ensure meaningful and effective education.

Cultural Heritage

Cultural Heritage

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Cultural heritage refers to the inherited customs, traditions, knowledge, beliefs, artistic expressions, artifacts, and practices that are passed down through generations within a particular community, society, or group. It encompasses tangible and intangible aspects of a culture and represents the collective identity and history of a community, often playing a significant role in shaping its values, norms, and sense of belonging.

Cooperation

Cooperation

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Cooperation refers to the act of working or acting together for a common purpose or benefit. It is derived from the Latin word 'cooperari', meaning to "work together". It involves sharing knowledge, learning, and building consensus. Cooperation can occur among individuals, organizations, or nations and is considered a vital element in many aspects of life, including business, social, educational, and scientific endeavors.

Cooperation can be formal or informal, temporary or enduring, voluntary or compelled. For example, people might cooperate to organize a community event, companies might cooperate to develop new technology, or countries might cooperate on global issues like climate change or disease control.

Community Building Spaces

Community Building Spaces

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Areas or venues dedicated to fostering and enhancing social connections, collaboration, and communal activities. These spaces can be physical or virtual and are designed to promote community engagement, interaction, and cohesion among members.

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

A U.S. federal agency established in 1934 responsible for regulating the securities industry, including stocks and bonds, and ensuring fair and transparent financial markets. The SEC's primary mission is to protect investors, maintain orderly market functions, and facilitate capital formation. It oversees corporate reporting by publicly-held companies, supervises key participants in the securities world, and enforces federal securities laws, taking action against companies and individuals who violate these laws.

Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)

Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

A U.S. federal law enacted in 1977 designed to encourage commercial banks and savings associations to meet the needs of borrowers in all segments of their communities, especially in low- and moderate-income neighborhoods. The CRA aims to prevent redlining, a discriminatory practice by which banks and other financial institutions refuse or limit loans, mortgages, and other financial services within specific, often racially determined, areas. Financial institutions are regularly assessed by federal regulators for their adherence to the CRA and are given ratings based on their performance in meeting community lending needs.

Community Organizing

Community Organizing

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Community organizing refers to a process by which individuals and groups within a community come together to identify common concerns, establish shared goals, and mobilize collective action to bring about social change and address community needs. It involves engaging community members, building relationships, developing leadership skills, and fostering collective power to influence decision-making processes and promote positive community development.

Community-based Research Participants

Community-based Research Participants

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Community-Based Research (CBR) participants are individuals from the community who actively engage in research projects that are based in their own community. In a CBR framework, community members, persons affected by the issues being studied, and organizational representatives are considered key stakeholders and equal partners in all phases of the research process. This includes defining the research question, data collection, interpretation of findings, and application of the results.

CBR emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships among research partners and aims to bridge the gap between research and practice, bringing multiple forms of expertise to address complex social problems. Thus, the role of community-based research participants goes beyond being subjects of study; they are collaborators and contributors to the research process.

Community-based Research

Community-based Research

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Community-Based Research (CBR) is a collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. It begins with a research topic of importance to the community with the aim of combining knowledge and action for social change to improve the material conditions experienced by people in community. CBR often involves researchers working in partnership with community members, grassroots organizations, and other stakeholders.

Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI)

Community Development Financial Institution (CDFI)

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

CDFI stands for Community Development Financial Institution. It is a specialized financial institution that serves low-income and underserved communities by providing access to financial services and investments that support community development and economic empowerment. CDFIs are mission-driven organizations that aim to address financial gaps and promote economic inclusion in areas where traditional financial institutions may be less accessible.

CDFIs offer a range of financial products and services, such as affordable loans, credit, technical assistance, and financial education, to individuals, small businesses, affordable housing projects, and nonprofit organizations. They focus on supporting community development initiatives, including affordable housing development, small business startups and expansions, community facilities, and other projects that create jobs and improve the quality of life in underserved communities.

Adinkra

Adinkra

THE HISTORY OF ADINKRA CLOTH AND SYMBOLS

The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols:
The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the sixteenth century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).

Apprentice

Apprentice

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

An apprentice is an individual who learns a trade or profession by practical experience under the tutelage of a skilled worker or professional. Apprenticeships often combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction and typically last for a specific period of time, during which the apprentice gradually gains the knowledge and skills needed to become proficient in the chosen trade or profession.

Academic Outcomes

Academic Outcomes

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Academic outcomes refer to the measurable educational results or accomplishments that a student achieves during their educational journey. These outcomes provide important insights into the effectiveness of an educational system, course, teacher, or specific learning experience.

Academic outcomes can include a wide range of different measures such as:

  • Grades or marks: These include course grades, grade point averages (GPA), and scores on standardized tests.
  • Degree or certificate attainment: This measures whether students complete their programs of study and receive the degrees or certificates they aimed for.
  • Retention rates: This measures how many students continue in their course of study from one academic term or year to the next.
  • Graduation rates: This measures the percentage of students who complete their educational program within a specified period.
  • Knowledge or skills acquired: This could be measured using various assessments that evaluate a student’s knowledge or skills in specific subjects or areas.
  • Post-graduation measures: These might include job placement rates, salaries, or further education enrollments.

Academic outcomes are critical for understanding student learning and for making informed decisions about educational policy and practice.

Access to credit

Access to credit

TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM

Access to credit refers to the ability of individuals or businesses to obtain loans or other forms of credit from financial institutions. This is an essential element for many economic activities, such as purchasing a home, starting or expanding a business, or managing unexpected expenses.

For Black Americans, however, access to credit has been and remains inequitable due to a combination of discriminatory practices and systemic barriers. Historically, Black communities were systematically denied access to mortgages and other types of loans through discriminatory lending practices like redlining. These practices have contributed to lasting racial disparities in homeownership, wealth accumulation, and business development.

In more recent times, studies suggest that Black Americans are often disproportionately affected by biases and discriminatory practices within the credit system. They are more likely to face limitations or restrictions in their ability to access credit (being “credit constrained”), have lower credit scores on average, and receive less favorable loan terms compared to white Americans, even when controlling for income and other factors. These disparities can further perpetuate economic inequality and hinder economic mobility for Black individuals and communities.

Accessibility

Accessibility

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Financial Accessibility:
Financial accessibility refers to the affordability of a service, product, or opportunity. It is often used in discussions about access to healthcare, education, and other essential services. It implies that costs should not be a barrier to accessing these services, and measures should be in place to ensure people can afford them, regardless of income level.

Personal Accessibility:
Personal accessibility relates to an individual’s ability to use, enjoy, or participate in a service or environment based on their personal circumstances, including factors such as disability, age, language proficiency, and technological literacy.

Community Accessibility:
Community accessibility refers to the degree to which services, opportunities, and resources are available and usable by a community. It often involves considerations of geographic location, cultural appropriateness, language, and social inclusivity.

Accountability

Accountability

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Accountability refers to the expectation or obligation of individuals, organizations, or institutions to take responsibility for their actions, decisions, and outcomes. It involves being answerable and transparent in terms of one's duties, obligations, and performance. Accountability often entails being subject to oversight, evaluation, and potential consequences for failures or misconduct, with the ultimate goal of promoting integrity, trust, and effective governance.

Achievement Gaps

Achievement Gaps

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

The "achievement gap" refers to the persistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, typically groups defined by socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, or gender. It is often characterized by disparities in grades, standardized test scores, course selection, dropout rates, and college-completion rates.

The achievement gap can be observed at all levels of education, from elementary school through university, and can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including socio-economic status, access to educational resources, quality of schools and teachers, parental involvement, and cultural expectations and biases.

It's worth noting that the term itself is considered controversial by some, who argue it places too much emphasis on the perceived failures of students and not enough on systemic factors such as social and economic inequality, school funding disparities, and biased curriculum standards.

Advocacy

Advocacy

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

Advocacy is the act of supporting, defending, or arguing for a cause, policy, or group of people. It involves actions taken to influence decision-making within political, economic, and social systems and institutions.

In general terms, advocacy aims to ensure that people, particularly those who are most vulnerable in society, can have their voice heard on issues that are important to them, defend and safeguard their rights, and have their views and wishes genuinely considered when decisions are being made about their lives.

There are various forms of advocacy, including:

  • Individual Advocacy: Support given to one person to address an issue that affects them directly. For example, advocating for a patient's rights in a healthcare setting.
  • Self-Advocacy: When an individual speaks up for themselves to express their own needs and rights.
  • Group Advocacy: When people who share common issues, concerns, or goals come together to make their voices heard. Examples include labor unions or environmental groups.
  • Systems Advocacy: Actions aimed at influencing policy, laws, or rules that impact how a system or institution operates. This form of advocacy often aims to bring about systemic change to benefit a group of people.

Advocacy can be performed by a wide range of individuals or organizations, including non-profit organizations, charities, activists, lawyers, and even everyday individuals who feel passionately about a cause.

American Community Survey (ACS)

American Community Survey (ACS)

TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM

The American Community Survey (ACS) is an ongoing survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. It collects detailed population and housing information from a sample of households in the United States every year. Unlike the decennial census, which aims to count every resident every ten years, the ACS is conducted annually and provides estimates on social, economic, housing, and demographic characteristics. Information gathered through the ACS helps local, state, and federal officials understand community conditions and is used for planning public services, allocating government funds, and policy-making. Topics covered in the survey include education, employment, income, housing, transportation, and various other aspects of daily life. The data is released in one-year and five-year estimates, allowing for analysis at different geographic levels and timeframes.