The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nkyinkyim (or twisting) represents adaptability, versatility, and the ability to withstand difficulties.
The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols: The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d'Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the 16th century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and was only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).
This project proposes there is the question — who and what is Black? What follows is a consideration of how a limited yet deeply engaged cohort from Winston-Salem/Forsyth County’s (WS/FC) Black community answered this compelling question along with others.
This project proposes there is the question — who and what is Black? What follows is a consideration of how a limited yet deeply engaged cohort from Winston-Salem/Forsyth County’s (WS/FC) Black community answered this compelling question along with others.
Who are we talking about when we say Black people? A question that causes any room to thunder with love, passion and pride for being one who is Black. When we say Black do we mean man, woman, male, female, non-binary folk? Are Black people those who are educated, religious, or wealthy? Does being Black mean being an advocate, artist or mentor? Are Black people athletes, survivors, dreamers? Are we Martin’s dreams, Harriet’s feet, Marcus Garvey's flight, Malcolm X’s enlightenment, Ida B. Wells' writings, Oprah Winfrey's interview questions, or Barack Obama’s hope for change? Are we Christian, Muslim or non-religious? The answer, to all of this, is yes! Yes.
Black is love, passion and pride. Black is the intersection of gender, class, sexuality, and religious affiliation. Black is non-binary. Black is education, art and advocacy. Black is active, it sweats and it dreams. Black is fly, it takes flight, runs, enlightens, writes, questions and changes. Black is the intersection of race and every identifier or non-identifier anyone can name. Black is encompassing of all. Black is the ringing alarm of intersectionality that explores its depth. Black is depth. Black culture, Black love, Black church, Black LGBTQ+, Historically Black Colleges and Universities, Black businesses, Black dollars, Black art, Black folk … is this Black? Yes!
When we say Black we are talking about those who take steps to make freedom ring. Black people are those who advocate for the caged bird to sing. Black is no limits, no barriers. Ultimately, Black is not a monolith. Black is the quintessential essence of intersectionality - to be Black and … to be the reason intersectionality exists. Black people, the creators, the originators, the blueprint, all there is and all there will be, the push and pull of existing in every way, the beat to this intersectionality dance. Oh, what a joy, to be Black!
Intersectionality is a socio-political concept that offers a lens through which to examine the multiple layers of inequality that affect an individual and how different forms of discrimination interact. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term as a way to help explain the overlapping layers of oppression of African American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Intersectionality, defined by Crenshaw as “a prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other,” recognizes that multiple sources of oppression can disadvantage individuals: their race, socioeconomic class, gender, sexuality, religion, and other identity markers.
Rather than viewing these elements separately, intersectionality examines how these forms of discrimination are interconnected and calls for an analysis of co-occurring and mutually reinforcing forms of inequality. It acknowledges that people's experiences of privilege or oppression are complex and multidimensional and rejects the idea that people's identities can be simplified or divided into separate categories. For example, a person who identifies as a woman of color with a disability would face discrimination unique to the intersection of these specific identities.
Originally, intersectionality centered on feminism, highlighting how women face multiple and varying levels of discrimination. For example, a woman of color who is also a member of the LGBTQ+ community will face more discrimination than a straight white woman. Today, intersectionality has spread beyond feminism to describe how members of marginalized groups can meet stacked inequalities that stem from multiple facets of their identities.
In contemporary academic and social discourse, intersectionality is a lens with which to analyze societal structures and cultural patterns, illuminating dynamics that might not be visible otherwise. It's used in various fields, such as sociology, psychology, politics, gender studies, and more, to deepen the understanding of social inequality and to promote social justice.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants)). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Ananse Ntontan (or Spider’s Web) signifies wisdom, creativity, and the complex nature of life's interconnectedness.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Race, identity, and social narratives are powerful forces that influence our behaviors and attitudes, and shape our lives within communities and society; however, race is not a biologically significant distinction among human beings. Despite visible differences in physical features such as skin color and body shape, there is no evidential basis in genetic research for distinct racial categories. Rather, race is a social construct — a product of societal perceptions and narratives instead of a reflection of genetic reality. Exploration of historical and economic context and scientific attempts to justify racial narratives can shed new light on the influence of race on our collective identities and on the societal and economic ideas that shape interactions and experiences within communities (Race: The Power of an Illusion, 2020).
Through her prolific body of work, Angela Davis — an American political activist, philosopher, academic, and author who has written extensively on the subjects of race, class, and gender — expresses a perspective of race that is shared by many scholars and researchers across the fields of sociology, anthropology, and related disciplines. This perspective acknowledges that race is a social construct with no inherent biological basis, yet it still has profound implications for people's lived experiences and social and economic realities due to how societies structure and react to these constructed racial categories (Davis, 1983).
Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, a renowned Nigerian author, presented a TED Talk on "The Danger of a Single Story," where she examined the risks and repercussions of accepting a single, simplified narrative about a culture or a group of people (TED, 2013). Reflecting on her childhood in Nigeria, she observed that her early writing was influenced by the British and American stories she read, thus neglecting her own cultural experiences. She pointed out how powerful entities often control the narratives we see, leading to a narrow and stereotypical understanding of certain cultures, like those in Nsukka, Nigeria (the town where Adichie grew up), being associated only with conflict, poverty, and disease.
Adichie's personal experiences illuminated how these single stories can breed stereotypes, create misunderstandings, and strip people of their dignity by flattening and essentializing their identities. She asserted that a single narrative can dangerously become the only narrative, and thus urged the importance of embracing multiple stories to better comprehend the complexity and richness of the human experience (Miyashiro, 2018).
This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
The Intersectionality of Black Life and Being is a report on perspectives of the Black community in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County (WS/FC), North Carolina, that was produced using a community-based research (CBR) framework. The defining characteristic of this approach is active involvement, co-leadership, and co-ownership from the very subjects of the report — Black peoples in community as participants in the research process. Commissioned by the Black Philanthropy Initiative of the Winston-Salem Foundation and produced in collaboration by Action4Equity, Forsyth Futures, and a cohort of community-based research participants (Participants), it reflects a commitment to ethical and equitable community engagement, an emphasis on decolonized approaches to research, and an intentional effort to shift and expand who has influence over how research is conducted and used to drive positive change in our community. Unlike similar past studies, the production of this report prioritized collaboration and shared decision making — with research participants’ values, perspectives, attitudes, and lived experiences grounding the process.
This report acknowledges the danger in proposing a single story for a group of people, that culture is not a monolith, and that racial designations are arbitrary social constructions, for which there is no biological basis. Importantly, the stories and ideas shared here represent the perspectives of a limited number of people who participated in the project (about 0.14% of Forsyth County’s Black population). Despite this modest sample size compared to larger surveys, the depth of engagement that unfolded over several months is important to recognize.
Recognizing these limitations, this report aims to avoid sweeping generalizations and makes room for the consideration of a broad range of identities and perspectives. The stories shared here are not intended to be taken as broad, sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic.
The perspectives shared in this report, though limited, offer a valuable exploration into the reality of Black life for Participants, and should not be discounted. They provide an honest and clear representation of Participants' experiences that can, hopefully, serve as a springboard for more inclusive and expansive future research into the complexities of Black reality.
It is recommended that the conversations sparked by this report extend beyond this platform, promoting broader dialogues about the Black reality in WS/FC.
At the direction of Participants, the content of this report was built into an interactive, web-based microsite. A goal of this microsite is to bring together many varieties of content including history, stories, community voices, data, and images, to weave a ‘tapestry’ that is thoughtful, intentional, and conveys the vibrancy of Black cultural abundance in WS/FC.
Because this microsite uses a variety of content sources and data methods, methodological notes are provided throughout.
Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols:
The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the sixteenth century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).
The institutional partners on this report include The Black Philanthropy Initiative (the funder and client), and Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures (vendors who designed the research frame and produced the report in collaboration). Each partner was asked to prepare a foreward to be published with the report to reflect on the content presented and convey each partner’s perspective, positionality, and specific recommendations for action.
Importantly, the forewords stand as independent from the primary body of community-based research and secondary sources. This distinction respects the integrity and research validity of the community-based methodology and provides an opportunity for critical commentary from the project partners without conflating their perspectives with the primary research data.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Duafe (or Wooden Comb) symbolizes beauty, cleanliness, and feminine qualities.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Recent cases in various countries have revealed a growing issue with policies that discriminate against Black hairstyles in schools and workplaces. This has led to a wave of resistance among Black youth and support from Black Lives Matter. The discrimination targets Black hair textures, treating them as separate from race, and symbolizes a broader anti-Blackness in society.
In some places, like California and Illinois, new laws have been passed to ban hair discrimination. However, these policies reflect a longstanding conflict that dates back to when Afro hairstyles were associated with resistance and nonconformity.
The policing of Black hair is more than just an issue of appearance; it’s connected to a deeper societal problem of racism and an attempt to suppress Black identity and force assimilation into Western standards. It’s a reminder of the ongoing struggles against racial discrimination and the importance of self-affirmation and societal change within the Black community (Norris, 2021).
Tracee Ellis Ross and Naomi Campbell in 1992.NEW YORK DAILY NEWS//GETTY IMAGES
Participants shared that, with institutions like Triad Cultural Arts, National Black Theatre Festival / North Carolina Black Repertory Company, and the Delta Arts Center, along with community-based initiatives such as HUSTLE WS, the Divine Nine organizations of Winston-Salem, and the Happy Hill Neighborhood Association, Winston-Salem and Forsyth County (WS/FC) boast a vibrant Black community that is rich with culture and social capital.
These community assets underscore the importance of achieving equity. The Black community has historically faced systemic oppression and discrimination, making the pursuit of liberation critical to ensuring equity and justice. Entities like the Kimberly Park Tennis Association, The Community Mosque of Winston-Salem, and Harvest Market — a SHARE Co-Op Grocery center their activities on community engagement, empowerment, and equitable access to resources and opportunities for Black individuals and communities.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Osram Ne Nsoromma (or the Moon and the Star) signifies love, faithfulness, and the power of harmony.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Moreover, events such as the Annual Easter Egg Hunt and Parade by Exquisite Ladies and Friends, and the Annual Festival and Job Fair by the Southeast Neighborhood Association of Winston-Salem highlight the joy and creativity within the Black community. They prioritize the celebration of Black culture and the empowerment of its members. In a similar vein, groups like Black Girls Do Bike and The Winston-Salem Black Knights Motorcycle Club focus on promoting physical and mental health, raising cultural awareness, and fostering community-building to achieve a sense of identity and solidarity.
In her book, "Winston-Salem’s African American Legacy (Images of America)," Cheryl Streeter Harry presents black and white images of Black residents, business owners, and members of organizations dating as far back as 1872 — including a photo of Ned Lemly, the first homeowner in Happy Hill, who was once enslaved. The book also contains a photograph of Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity Inc. members and their wives, serving as a stark reminder: “The limited opportunities that both middle- and low-income African Americans experienced from racial discrimination and segregation bonded them together regardless of social and economic status. African Americans organized through social organizations to take civic action and provide community service advancement of African Americans in Winston-Salem” (Harry, 2013).
In 2019, the City of Winston-Salem established the African American Heritage Committee to further study Black history. This group could potentially provide additional information about the mentioned social organizations for those interested.
Ultimately, considering and fostering a sense of connectivity, identity, and solidarity is crucial for healing divisions within the community — an essential step towards healing the trauma and injustices that stem from oppressive systems designed to undermine Black individuals, families, and culture.
Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Cultural abundance specifically, is being used in this section as a measure to identify the health and vitality of Black communities. Community members pointed out that limitations in this section included recognizing Black hair and Black fashion as representative of Winston-Salem’s Black culture. Community members also lifted up the role of Black Sorority and Fraternity events such as Juneteenth and Emancipation Day Services, and groups such as TopTeens. They also lifted up the impact of the ‘Big Four’ high schools: Carver High School, Atkins High School, Anderson High School, and Paisley High School. These institutions have played a significant role in providing education to Black students in WS/FC, historically and in the present day.
In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.
What makes our community strong? Winston-Salem has amazing restaurants and fast food places, some for example are: Cookout, Sweet Potatoes (a restaurant). In Winston-Salem, a lot of kids come together through sports, this includes football, swimming, training facilities, and recreation centers. In places like Winston-Salem, education is key whether you are learning what you are being taught in school or learning on your own to increase your knowledge of self. Tutors, cultural center, Black panther party, self conscious (remember being Black) these are just some of the ways Winston-Salem has brought education to the light. In Winston-Salem, we try to find light even in the little things. Here are our expressions of love: Groups like Embedded Mentors Program (EMP), giving back to the homeless, generosity, families that cherish each other, Black people sticking together, and the activities that churches do such as clothing pantries (clothing give away), food pantries (food give away), and direct assistance programs. If you come to Winston-Salem some of the prosperity may attract your eyes such as the nice houses, and fun places to go.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
The narrative that the media tells has made it easy to identify violence and difficult to understand what trauma truly is. Therefore, to begin the healing process, in the context of community and individual, we must recognize that something happened: trauma. [...] Once we have recognized something happened to communities and individuals we can begin the healing process.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Epa (or Handcuffs) symbolizes slavery, captivity, and the quest for freedom and emancipation.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Community-based research (CBR) aims to amplify community narratives and align them with research practices and policy changes. It puts the voices of those most directly impacted by systems of marginalization and oppression at the center, offering suggestions to shape policies that will benefit the community.
In 2019, the City of Winston-Salem established the African American Heritage Committee to further study Black history. This group could potentially provide additional information about the mentioned social organizations for those interested.
Ultimately, considering and fostering a sense of connectivity, identity, and solidarity is crucial for healing divisions within the community — an essential step towards healing the trauma and injustices that stem from oppressive systems designed to undermine Black individuals, families, and culture.
Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.Community-based research (CBR) is a collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. It begins with a research topic of importance to the community with the aim of combining knowledge and action for social change to improve the material conditions experienced by people in community. CBR often involves researchers working in partnership with community members, grassroots organizations, and other stakeholders.
From a cultural perspective, there was a longing to embrace the West African value for the village taking collective responsibility for upbringing, care, love, and mentoring of youth, as well as reverence for and protection of elders (New World Encyclopedia, 2023).
Community members involved in the project expressed a desire for a healthy and vital Black community, pointing to several indicators. First, they defined health not only in the traditional sense but also as a holistic, community-centric practice. This speaks to Black people living and thriving in peace and enjoying physical well-being, alongside food security, mental/spiritual stability, and disease prevention.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nyame Dua (or Tree of God) represents the presence of the divine, spirituality, and sacredness.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
New World Encyclopedia gives an overview of the social and cultural life of West Africans at the time of the Atlantic slave trade, emphasizing the importance of community and extended family structures. In West Africa, most people lived in hamlets or villages that comprised extended families and clans called lineages. These familial structures, both patrilineal or matrilineal depending on the ethnic group, served as fundamental societal units and acted as mini-governments, especially in stateless societies.
In extended families, nuclear families or polygynous families functioned as economic units, existing in the broader family community composed of grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. Elders in the extended family held significant power over the economic and social lives of its members, indicating a high level of reverence for elders. This structure allowed for the collective responsibility for upbringing, care, love, and mentoring of youth.
Indigenous West African religions, which were deeply rooted in these societies, involved ceremonies designed to sustain ancestral spirits and their power over the earth, showing a deep respect for elders and the past. These rituals, which included music, dancing, and animal sacrifices, were part of everyday life and often involved active participation from all family members, reinforcing the collective approach to societal responsibilities (New World Encyclopedia, 2023).
Participants also highlighted the necessity for environmental and healing justice. This process involves a community recognizing the trauma brought on by marginalization and the damage caused by the violence of oppression. The community then commits to fostering peaceful reconciliation and transforming systems to provide better opportunities for Black people to thrive.
To initiate healing justice, there must be a deeper understanding of both community and individual violence. Media, in its many forms, has become a tool used to tell the narratives of so many different people from a slanted perspective. This portrayal makes it easy to see violence, yet masks the true nature of trauma.
To begin the healing process on both a community and individual level, we must acknowledge that something has happened: trauma. Structural, systemic, and institutional violence not only provoke community and individual violence but also push individuals in oppressed communities into subservience and hardship. This environment makes it natural for the spirit to respond — free, running, or tired — a trauma response. Once we acknowledge the trauma experienced by communities and individuals, we can begin the healing process.
Healing is a profound, intentional process of self-awareness, connection, and advocacy. Self-awareness is the individual healing piece, while connection nurtures community healing. Both are necessary to challenge and change structural, systemic, and institutional violence, which forms the advocacy piece. It's only after we've navigated these aspects of healing, particularly the advocacy element, that we can open up more avenues for community and individual healing — in other words, healing injustice. Most crucially, even if structures, systems, and institutions persist in their violent ways because they profit from them, we, who are healed and healers, can still persist in creating more opportunities for both community and individual healing (Lové Lemon, personal communication, June 15, 2023).
In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.
“life is a series of achievements”
What does achievement look like for youth? Who doesn't want to feel fulfilled with who they are? The youth have their whole futures ahead of them, so when asked about what achievement looks like to them, they responded with the steps to fulfillment, which include: learning how to take criticism, avoiding drama, seeing it in your mind, perseverance, focusing on your school work, pulling up your grades, working hard for something, getting a job, making your own money, graduating high school, starting a clothing brand. As the youth reflected on what these steps to fulfillment could make possible, they identified: a sense of accomplishment and acceptance, feeling content with where they are in life and accomplishing their goals.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Participants shared that education holds immense cultural value within the local Black community. The findings from the community-based research process underscore this significance and shed light on critical aspects of the education landscape. While the district, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS), is well-resourced ("District Overview: Budget," n.d.) and boasts talented individuals with a commitment to raising achievement, there are nevertheless persistent disparities in academic outcomes for Black students — a condition that should not prevail.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nsoromma (or Child of the Heavens or Star) represents the potential for greatness and reaching one's aspirations.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
CBR participants' experiences and perspectives, along with specific quantitative data, provide insights into crucial areas of concern within education including:
Participants expressed a desire to illuminate the challenges faced and advocate for improvements to create a more equitable and empowering educational environment for the Black community in Forsyth County.
Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools:
WS/FCS is a public school district located in Forsyth County, North Carolina — one of the largest school systems in the state, serving both the city of Winston-Salem and surrounding Forsyth County.
WS/FCS's mission is to provide a high-quality and equitable education that prepares each student to be a responsible citizen and a lifelong learner. It is committed to creating a safe, inclusive, and engaging learning environment where all students can thrive.
WS/FCS operates a number of elementary, middle, and high schools, as well as various specialized programs and schools. The district's student population is diverse, reflecting the racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity of the wider community.
During the 2022-23 school year, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools' student population was racially and ethnically diverse, with white, non-Hispanic students making up 33.5% of the population, closely followed by Black, non-Hispanic (29.2%), and Hispanic/Latino students (29.1%). Data from the 2021-22 school year shows approximately 21% of the teacher population identified as Black and 72% identified as white. Read more about these demographics on the Data & Tables page.
As with many urban districts in the U.S., WS/FCS faces challenges related to educational equity, including achievement gaps among different student groups, school funding disparities, and the need for culturally responsive education.
The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.
The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.
The Black community values education: Culturally, the value for education has been a cornerstone of the Black community. Community participant perspectives confirm this, as revealed by the findings across the topic of education. Participants noted WS/FCS is a well-resourced district ("District Overview: Budget," n.d.), with talented people — 77.3% of teachers are certified on average and 96.1% have three or more years of experience on average (U.S. News & World Report, n.d.). Additionally, Participants noted that WS/FCS Superintendent, Tricia McManus, is committed to raising achievement.
“I am really excited to be given the opportunity to continue leading the district,” said Superintendent Tricia McManus in a statement on WS/FCS’s website. “This means the work of improving our underperforming schools, increasing literacy outcomes, improving kindergarten readiness, and focusing on recruitment and retention of high performing staff can continue. In addition, we can move full speed ahead toward implementing the equity-driven components of our strategic plan so that every student experiences a high-quality education in Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools.”
With a background in various roles in education since 1990, McManus has a proven record of improving underperforming schools. As a principal, she improved a school's grade from F to C and another from C to A. As an assistant superintendent, she increased a school's grade from F to C within a year and decreased the number of schools with D and F grades from 32 to 26 in one year (Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, n.d.).
Therefore, Participants felt that the current disparities in achievement for Black students should not exist.
Data from the 2021-2022 school year in Forsyth County, North Carolina, show a noticeable gap in performance between different racial groups in reading, math, and science. From third to eighth grade, 63% of white students were proficient in reading, but only 25% of Black and Hispanic/Latino students were proficient. A similar gap in proficiency was also evident in math, between white students and Black and Hispanic/Latino students.
Science proficiency (assessed in 5th through 8th grades) were generally better for everyone, but a gap in proficiency was persistent: about 82% of white students were proficient, versus 45% of Black students and 48% of Hispanic/Latino students.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
Achievement gaps, school funding, and segregation: Participants reported that education has become disjointed from the quality of life; there is a need to properly address achievement gaps, funding across all county schools, and persistent racial segregation; resulting in part from the construction of North/South Highway 52. This created two distinct communities, East (Black) and West (white) Winston-Salem. The impact of this policy also served to help create deeply entrenched generational poverty, making it virtually intractable. A perspective emerged that access to resources across the district remains disproportionate.
Highway 52: a Physical Dividing Line:
The construction of Highway 52 locally stands as a poignant example of how historical urban planning and transportation policies have contributed to racial segregation and disenfranchisement in American cities. This highway, known as the physical dividing line in Winston-Salem, serves as a barrier that separates predominantly Black communities from predominantly white ones.
During the mid-20th century, a period marked by the development of interstates and major highways, decision-makers often chose to build these transportation projects in low-income and predominantly Black neighborhoods due, in part, to lower property values in these areas, reducing the cost of land acquisition for construction.
However, the placement of such highways had detrimental effects on the affected communities. In the case of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, it led to the displacement of Black residents, destruction of homes and businesses, and fragmentation of established Black neighborhoods. Moreover, the highway's presence effectively cut off these communities from the city's economic, educational, and social resources, contributing to racial and socio-economic segregation. The design of the highway, including limited crossing points, discouraged movement between the predominantly Black and white areas of the city.
In 1948, North Carolina experienced a severe polio outbreak, providing local authorities in Winston-Salem with an opportunity for urban renewal. Utilizing rhetoric that scapegoated poor Black neighborhoods as the source of the disease, city leaders sought to reshape Winston-Salem both physically and mentally. By framing these neighborhoods as a supposed threat to the white way of life, policymakers used terms like "urban renewal," "uplift," and "slum clearance" to justify removing the city's poorest Black residents.
This process displaced Black communities like Monkey Bottom, The Shakes, and Columbian Heights to pave the way for commercial property, industrial space, and the construction of Highway 52.
Columbian Heights is the neighborhood immediately surrounding Winston-Salem State University. It was founded by Simon Green Atkins in the 1890s and it was part of his twin vision of promoting Black education and homeownership. During the age of Jim Crow, Columbian Heights was home to many Black professionals: teachers, business owners, firemen, etc. It was a stable Black neighborhood.
The urban renewal policies of this era effectively contributed to racial segregation and the disenfranchisement of Black communities. Highway 52, cutting through East Winston's Black and brown neighborhoods, symbolizes the institutionalization of separate and unequal geography, perpetuating historical disparities in Winston-Salem.
Today, Highway 52 remains a stark symbol of racial segregation within Forsyth County. The predominantly Black neighborhoods on the eastern side of the highway face economic and social challenges, including higher poverty rates, under-resourced schools, and limited access to healthcare facilities. Conversely, the predominantly white neighborhoods on the western side generally enjoy better access to resources and opportunities.
While it is essential to acknowledge that many other factors contribute to these disparities, the role of urban planning decisions, such as the construction of Highway 52, should not be underestimated. They serve as enduring physical manifestations of systemic racism, further entrenching segregation and inequality in the community. Efforts to address these historic injustices are ongoing, but significant challenges remain.
Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) reflects the racial segregation that's also seen in Forsyth County's neighborhoods. In the 2021-22 school year, about a third of the students in WS/FCS were white and not Hispanic, while around 58% were Black or Hispanic/Latino.
Despite the diverse student body, many individual schools don't reflect that diversity. Only about 18% of schools can be considered racially balanced (with a difference of 10% or less). On the flip side, a significant number of schools have a high concentration of either Black and Hispanic/Latino students (42%) or white students (5%). This level of segregation can create inequalities, like unbalanced funding and higher poverty rates in certain schools.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page
Effective, Culturally-Competent Teachers and Discipline: Participants expressed that the most important educational insight gained from the community-based process was a clearly articulated desire for experienced and effective teachers in schools where Black children learn, reaffirming the strong cultural value placed on education within the Black community of WS/FC.
Schools that educate Black students and engage Black families must grasp how trauma can influence learning. Disparities in discipline practices are notable, with Black students being 4.04 times more likely, and Hispanic/Latino students 2.06 times more likely, to receive out-of-school suspensions compared to their white peers.
School-based punishments like suspensions interfere with learning by removing students from the classroom. This practice often unfairly impact students of color, creating educational disparities or gaps.
The 'risk ratio' uses statistics to show how likely a student from a specific racial or ethnic group is to receive disruptive forms of discipline compared to white students.
In the 2021-2022 school year, Black/African American students were over four times as likely, and Hispanic/Latino students were twice as likely, to be suspended from school (through out-of-school suspensions, specifically) compared to white students.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page
Trauma and Student Discipline in Schools:
The historical weight of trauma is deeply interwoven into the everyday lives of Black Americans. This trauma, rooted in the legacies of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, Jim Crow laws, and other racially prejudiced policies, has cascading effects on health, education, housing, and wealth. The modern-day experiences of systemic racism, from microaggressions to blatant racial violence, further compound these traumas.
As schools develop frameworks for supporting Black students, it is crucial to consider both the historical and contemporary lenses of trauma, emphasizing resilience and healing alongside recognizing these hardships. It is imperative for schools educating Black students to fully grasp the profound influence of trauma on behavior, learning, and overall student well-being.
Some institutions are beginning to move away from traditional punitive disciplinary measures, which have been shown to yield adverse outcomes like reduced academic success and increased criminal justice engagement, with an evident shift towards more positive discipline strategies.
Restorative justice practices, social and emotional learning, and positive behavior interventions are becoming more widespread in use to foster an environment of understanding, empathy, and positive behavioral transformation.
Go to the Glossary to learn more about trauma and school discipline practices.
The collective impact of teacher effectiveness, skills, and diversity can result in academic underperformance in schools where Black students constitute the majority (Darling-Hammond, Baratz-Snowden, 2007). Participants emphasized the need to redirect the focus in these schools from behavioral issues to academic achievement. By enhancing teacher placement in schools with low academic performance, the emphasis can shift from student behavior towards fostering academic excellence and aligning student preparation with the technological economy of Innovation Quarter. For teachers in local public schools to effectively engage with Black students, they need to deeply understand the concept of culture, as institutional measures of success are different across Black and white communities.
There were concerns that WS/FC does not support local Black college graduates, and cited Innovation Quarter as an example.
The proficiency and experience of teachers can significantly influence student performance. Evaluations of teacher effectiveness are generally based on five criteria: leadership, ability to create a respectful environment for diverse students, mastery of teaching content, student learning facilitation, and self-reflection on practice — ‘effective teachers’ meet proficiency in all these areas.
Generally, greater teacher experience does have a positive impact on student performance. Further, the relationship between teacher experience and student performance is multifaceted, with the strongest positive effects seen in the early years of a teacher's career. The impact varies by subject and grade level, and the relationship is more complex in high-poverty settings (Rice, 2010).
In WS/FCS, in the 2019-2020 school year, schools with a higher percentage of white students had a greater percentage of effective and experienced teachers. Conversely, schools with more Black and Hispanic/Latino students had fewer. Although the correlation is weak, it is significant enough to suggest that it isn't a result of random chance.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page
Participants expressed a desire for more culturally-specific educational advocacy organizations, such as the WS/FC Alliance of Black School Educators (WABSE).
The importance of engaging a broad range of diverse voices in decision making was also lifted up. This includes engaging school personnel — from teachers and counselors to bus drivers, custodians, cafeteria workers, and volunteers — in parent and community engagement efforts. Additionally, youth perspectives should be prioritized when making decisions about curriculum and other aspects of their education.
Participants expressed that the WS/FCS Board of Education (BOE) tends to be responsive when parents show up as advocates — that they are responsive to their most vocal constituents. However, there is a distinction in how parents show up, with middle class parents showing up differently relative to test scores than parents who work. There is a perspective that the BOE fails to address the needs of Black and Hispanic/Latino students.
Participants suggested that spaces for popular education exist outside the local public schools to foster academic achievement and provide assets-based, culturally-affirming educational spaces for Black youth. Two important features of such spaces were identified as peer support and allowing Black youth to participate in ways they decide are meaningful.
Popular Education: a Tool for Social Change:
Popular education is a form of education that emphasizes collective, participatory learning as a tool for social change. It differs from traditional education in its approach, which aims to empower learners to critically analyze their personal experiences and the societal structures that shape them. The ultimate goal is to enable individuals and communities to take collective action towards social justice.
Popular education is closely tied to the ideas of Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher who is often credited with founding the popular education movement. In his seminal work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Freire critiqued the "banking model" of education, in which knowledge is "deposited" into passive students. Instead, he argued for a problem-posing approach where learners actively engage with and question the world around them (Freire, 1970; Mayo, 1999; Crowther, Galloway, & Martin, 2005).
Some examples of successful approaches to popular education from across the US include:
Participants noted that local examples of such popular education opportunities include Island Culturez and Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentor Program.
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
During the community meeting, participants identified several limitations in the section under discussion. These limitations included the lack of emphasis on important topics such as the limited availability of affordable childcare and its impact on the community. Additionally, community members highlighted the significance of addressing the school-to-prison pipeline and the need for programs or groups that positively influence the lives of Black children from as early as 3rd grade. Furthermore, there was a call for a greater focus on trauma resiliency and investing in alternative solutions to promote educational prosperity. These insights from community members underscored the importance of addressing these critical issues within the broader context of the report.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Life in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County presents both challenges and opportunities for Black residents. Findings on the theme of the local economy indicate several areas of Participants’ concern around economic development and growth:
Participants expressed concern that Innovation Quarter is not in service of Black residents, consistent with the findings on education and how Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) prepares Black students to matriculate into post-secondary education and the local economy writ large. Within this dynamic, there is little support for Black entrepreneurship, along with a limited number of programs to apprentice entrepreneurs. The ones that are available were viewed as lacking sustainability by Participants.
Participants felt that jobs that pay 45-65K are insufficient as livable income when considering the current inflation rate — rent has increased by as much as 60% for some rental properties (Sterling, 2022). Competition from an influx of transplants from outside the community poses challenges in finding employment. Overall, there has been a decline in economic mobility in the last 50 years which has contributed to an increase in the wealth gap. It was noted that dollars from the Black community circulate in less than six minutes (Black Wall Street Forward, 2023).
Participants characterized these as examples of how Black peoples in WS/FC are bouncing back from a tobacco-driven economy in which R.J. Reynolds provided jobs with a living wage, and opportunities for increasing homeownership for Black employees (Reynolds Town). Those who were employed by the company benefited from on-the-job training, so there was no need to obtain a high school diploma.
Economic Mobility in the United States:
Economic mobility in the United States, particularly upward mobility, has been on a decline over the past few decades. Upward mobility refers to the ability of an individual or family to improve their economic status within their lifetime or from one generation to the next. This decline in mobility has had significant implications for the overall wealth and income disparity in the country, and the impact has been especially pronounced for Black communities.
In the U.S., wealth has been highly concentrated among white households, which on average hold about six times as much wealth as Black households. A number of factors contribute to this disparity, including systemic racism, discriminatory housing policies, unequal educational opportunities, and labor market discrimination.
Systemic racism and discriminatory policies like redlining have historically limited Black families' access to wealth-building opportunities like homeownership. For example, the Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing, was only enacted in 1968, and the effects of decades of legal housing discrimination continue to be felt today. Due to these and other factors, Black households are less likely to own their homes compared to white households, limiting their opportunities to build wealth.
Inequality in education further contributes to the decline in economic mobility for Black communities. Schools with predominantly Black student populations tend to have fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, and lower overall funding than schools serving mainly white students. This can affect the quality of education and limit the opportunities for students from these schools, leading to lower earnings in adulthood.
The impact of labor market discrimination should also not be underestimated. Studies have shown that Black individuals are often paid less than their white counterparts for doing the same jobs and are less likely to be hired for certain positions or promoted within a company.
According to data from the 2021 American Community Survey, there are noticeable differences in income among full-time workers (people working 30 or more hours a week for 52 weeks a year) between the ages of 25 and 64. Workers who are white and not Hispanic tend to make more money than their Black and Hispanic counterparts with the same level of education.
Median income provides a way to examine this by identifying the middle point of all incomes, meaning half of people earn more than this amount and half earn less.
Specifically, the median income for white, non-Hispanic workers is $57,676. This is much higher than the median incomes of $36,047 for Black, non-Hispanic workers and $39,137 for Hispanic workers. This gap continues among college graduates, with white, non-Hispanic workers earning a median income of $67,975, compared to $51,496 for Black, non-Hispanic workers and $41,197 for Hispanic workers.
Among those without a college degree, Black, non-Hispanic workers have the lowest median income at $25,954. This is much lower than the median incomes of $42,227 for white, non-Hispanic workers and $36,150 for Hispanic workers.
These numbers highlight that income disparities along racial and ethnic lines still exist, even when education levels are taken into account.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
Income insufficiency is a way to measure if a household's income is enough to cover their estimated expenses. This measure, created by Forsyth Futures, takes into account the size of the household, where they live, and how their expenses change over time. This approach is different from traditional ways of calculating poverty rates, which may not accurately show the level of financial hardship faced by families because they are based on assumptions that are too general to be reliable. To calculate income insufficiency, the method starts with figuring out the lowest expenses a household is likely to have. Then it works out what percentage of people earning less than this amount. The goal is to get a better understanding of who is facing financial hardship.
The results show significant disparities between racial and ethnic groups. In 2021, 38% of Black and 36% of Hispanic/Latino residents in Forsyth County didn't have enough income to cover their estimated expenses compared to 20% of white residents.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
The American Community Survey (ACS) gathered Forsyth County data on how people 16 and older, who have jobs, get to work and how long it takes them. Respondents were asked, "What method of transportation did you usually use to get to work last week?" and "How long did it usually take you to get from home to work last week?"
The ACS data reveal that the time it took to commute to work didn't differ much between racial and ethnic groups.
However, there were noticeable differences in the means of transport. Most Hispanic/Latino residents, about 90%, drive to work in a car, truck, or van, compared to 79% of white residents. Fewer than 5% of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and white residents reported using a method of transportation that isn't a car, truck, or van for their commute.
Regarding remote work, ACS data showed that 19% of white, non-Hispanic residents in Forsyth County work from home, compared to 12% of Black, non-Hispanic residents and 9% of Hispanic/Latino residents.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
When taken together, Participants expressed that these challenges are exacerbated by a lack of transportation which could provide accessibility to jobs outside of Winston-Salem proper, along with the need for more affordable child care to provide parents the opportunity to work.
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Community members emphasized the significance of incorporating Minority and Women Owned Business Enterprise representation in fields such as construction and various subcontractor trades. To better understand the ecosystem and identify potential barriers and gaps, there should be further collaboration and research with Black-owned businesses.
Limitations: This section was produced by Action4Equity and Forsyth Futures staff at the direction of the Writing Team (who are all community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants). These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Participants lifted up Island CulturZ as a case study of a sovereign, self-sustaining economy that arose in an area called ‘Da Island’ in response to being pushed out by the original construction of Highway 52, then finally closed off by the renovation of Salem and Research Parkways. In response, the community has become just one example of cooperative economics or shared wealth and work as “a commitment to the practice of shared social wealth and the work necessary to achieve it” and as “a sharing of wealth and work in the manner of a family.” This concept is based on the assumption that the well-being of community is “best achieved in the context of shared social wealth.” (Karenga, 1996).
Participants noted this approach as similar to the ways white and Latino communities pull together to share resources and create economic viability. It is a community nestled in East Winston, defined historically through Mohommed Herb’s “Back To School Block Party,” whereas the participation of the students was limited to neighborhood kids from Maryland Avenue back to South Gate, over to New Walkertown Road and on the North side of Business 40. The circumscribed area has been tweaked a bit to include Skyland Field and Park, as this is defined by their community’s interests.
Mohommed Herb is an elder who exemplifies an entrepreneurial spirit as he models the self-reliance and resilience that Participants deeply value on Da Island. Historically, he’s been referred to as a “green tree amongst the withered.” That adage has been revamped and he’s now referred to as a “green tree amongst the emerging,” taking into account the many successful businesses and entrepreneurs that have sprung up who name “Herb” as their inspiration.
From Herb’s “Get Paid For A’s Program” and “Back2School Block Party,” Da Island designated a boundary around the initiative of building intentional community, setting a precedent around generating generational wealth with neighborhood agriculture.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Bese Saka (or sack of cola nuts) symbolizes abundance, affluence, and the importance of planning and agriculture.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Participants also discussed Venture Café — a community-based non-profit organization that has served as a vehicle for Black entrepreneurs to network, grow, and develop their businesses.
Now, however, Participants noted that WS/FC functions as a more highly-skilled research, science, technology, engineering, and math economy. In response, some in the Black community are reinventing themselves to meet both the challenges and opportunities presented by this shift; alongside an understanding that the economic health of white communities looks different than that of Black communities. Participants noted that in Black WS/FC, income is generated through shops, churches, homeless and mental health shelters, human resources, intellectual property, agriculture, trades, goods and services — each of these representative of the values of cooperative economics, spiritual/servant leadership, and collective work and responsibility that has, over time, defined and sustained Black culture.
In response to requests from CBR Participants and BPI committee members, the youth perspective was added to the research design through Action4Equity’s Embedded Mentorship Program. This program, which was designed to address student behavioral issues in four schools, originated as a partnership between two grassroots organizations (Enough Is Enough Winston-Salem, Inc., and New Life/NuevaVida) with a history of violence interruption in the community. Action4Equity played a critical role in facilitating a partnership between these two organizations, A4E, and the school district, which made the pilot program possible. On April 11th, a staff researcher and a Writing Team member spoke with a group of youth, focusing on community strengths and barriers, effective teaching, the impact of a Black curriculum, and personal definitions of achievement. Afterward, two youth wrote summaries of these conversations to include in the report. Learn more about this report’s methodology.
“Being in Winston-Salem is like being in a war”
There is always something holding the community back. The youth pointed to the following factors: lack of knowledge, crimes, violence, talking, lack of communication, lack of picking up trash, lack of love and understanding, gangs, and lack of self-actualization. The youth also discussed the challenges of being Black in this city, including becoming involved with the law and the justice system, being victimized by the police, and racism. College tuition is too high. There is not enough access to scholarships, which led to a conversation about how the military can create opportunities for college.
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Community members emphasized the significance of the Black Community in Winston-Salem/Forsyth County taking collective action and utilizing research to develop solutions for shared challenges. They expressed concern regarding the historical dependence on external assistance, which often results in inadequate solutions. In particular, they highlighted the importance of recognizing agriculture as a fundamental human right and its potential to restore value and economic prosperity within the community.
This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Participants acknowledged that Highway 52 created a north/south divide that split Winston-Salem into two separate cities, east and west Winston, along racial lines. For a time, Black people were prohibited from buying property on the west side of the city (Herbin-Triant, 2019) and today homes in West Winston-Salem are four times the value as homes in East Winston-Salem (Forsyth County Neighborhood Opportunity Atlas, 2021). By contrast, East Winston-Salem has fewer owner-occupied homes (Forsyth County Neighborhood Opportunity Atlas, 2021) and an ever-increasing decline in housing quality, with many residential properties being acquired as income properties instead of investment properties. A housing study and needs assessment for Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, published in 2018, states that, “With a significant housing stock that is aging, explicit focus on rehabilitation of vacant, historic and aging units may present a strategic opportunity to help meet projected new housing demand over the next 10 years (Enterprise Community Partners, Inc., 2018).
Participants noted that the impact of this dynamic can be seen in trauma for youth who live in substandard, dilapidated housing — giving rise to fear, violence, and quality of life that is not conducive to cultural, spiritual, mental or emotional health.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Akoma (or Heart) symbolizes patience, goodwill, tolerance, and understanding.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Participants further identified that the struggle for Black residents in East Winston-Salem is one of gentrification, an example of which can be seen east of Research Parkway, along Fifth Street. Other challenges lifted up by Participants, relative to housing and homeownership, include housing affordability, discrimination in lending and interest rates, access to credit, and education on the homeownership process.
This op-ed, published in the Winston-Salem Journal in 2019, delves into the historical context of residential segregation in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, shedding light on the lasting consequences faced by marginalized communities today. Focusing on the division caused by U.S. 52, the piece explores the stark contrast between a thriving downtown and an impoverished majority-Black neighborhood. It traces the roots of intentional segregation back to the early 20th century, where discriminatory ordinances sought to keep Black people out of white neighborhoods. Despite legal challenges, subsequent efforts to maintain segregation persisted, including zoning ordinances and the Home Owners Loan Corporation's discriminatory practices (sometimes called ‘redlining’).
The article further highlights the impact of redevelopment (or ‘urban renewal’) projects that displaced Black neighborhoods, leaving a legacy of inequality and limited access to resources. However, amidst these challenges, the op-ed emphasizes the optimism and determination of individuals working to address past injustices and empower the residents of East Winston.
Participants expressed that Winston-Salem is in dire need of housing that is affordable, with a shortfall of 16,244 affordable units (City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, n.d.). As stated earlier in the section on resilience and the local economy, rents have increased by up to 60% on some properties due to inflation (Sterling, 2022).
The City of Winston-Salem has decided there is a need to address these economic gaps, with a plan to invest 30 million dollars over the next 10 years to build 750 homes per year (see sources cited in the Local Efforts to Expand Affordable Housing section below).
The State of Affordable Housing — “According to a comprehensive 2018 study, commissioned to better understand the state of housing affordability in our community, fewer than half of all rental units in Winston-Salem are affordable to families earning 80% of AMI or less. This has resulted in a shortage of more than 16,000 affordable homes (City of Winston-Salem, North Carolina, n.d.).”
In the context of housing affordability, "AMI" stands for "Area Median Income." It is a measure used by the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to determine income eligibility criteria for various housing programs.
When the statement says "fewer than half of all rental units in Winston-Salem are affordable to families earning 80% of AMI or less," it means that many rental units in the area are too expensive for families earning 80% (or less) of the local median income. In essence, a significant portion of the community in Winston-Salem is priced out of many available housing options.
The City’s Commitment — Winston-Salem has made a commitment to provide 750 units of affordable housing annually over the coming decade. The city council recently approved $30 million to support the creation of affordable housing within the city. The source of this funding is a mix of $10 million from the N.C. General Assembly and $20 million from the city's general fund. This decision was made possible after the city identified a method to utilize a significant portion of federal stimulus money, received through the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA), to cover police salaries. As a result, money from the general fund was freed up for affordable housing, granting the city more flexibility in how it is spent (Young, 2022).
The Choice Neighborhood Initiative Project — The City of Winston-Salem and the Housing Authority of Winston-Salem (HAWS) have partnered on the Choice Neighborhood Initiative Project, with initial funding provided through a $30 million grant from the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). This initiative aims to revitalize the Northeast community of Winston-Salem with an estimated total price tag $750 million to realize the project’s full vision (Winston-Salem Choice Neighborhood, 2023).
The project is located in the Cleveland Avenue neighborhood. Its first phase focuses on creating a multi-level apartment complex, intending to serve around 80 families. The HAWS has stated that the project will make a commitment to maintain current rental rates for residents (Pierce, 2022).
The Choice Neighborhoods Program includes plans to convert the 244-unit Cleveland Avenue Homes public housing into 406 mixed-income housing units at two separate neighborhood sites. (Winston-Salem Choice Neighborhood, 2023). Though significant funding has been secured and the project is well underway, it is still unclear from the sources cited how the total project price tag of $750 million will be funded.
In February, 2023, city council approved renovations for apartments at 1200 Willie Davis Drive and 1635 N. Cleveland Ave (part of the Choice Neighborhoods Initiative area) with a budget of up to $750,000. Initially, residents of these city-owned affordable housing units were asked to vacate for renovations, but they were allowed to stay in place after community pushback. The council approved 1-year lease extensions for the residents at their current rates and extended the contract with the current property management company. There is ongoing debate about the city's long-term plan for these properties, including whether they should remain city-owned or be sold. Dan Rose, an advocate from Housing Justice Now, emphasized the concerns, stating, “The biggest problem of all is that you’re not talking to the residents (Melcher, 2023).”
In April, 2023, press release from US Congresswoman Kathy Manning from North Carolina's sixth district states that she has secured a $5 million federal grant to go toward the project (Manning, 2023).
The Flats at Peter’s Creek — A prospective affordable housing project is in the works on Peters Creek Parkway, previously the site of the Budget Inn. This initiative is a collaborative effort between private developers, nonprofits, and the city. The goal is to construct 62 income-based rental units where households earning no more than 60% of the area's median income will qualify. The city has approved $500,000 in gap financing for the project, but developers are still awaiting tax credits from the North Carolina Housing Finance Agency to proceed (Brown, 2022).
Crystal Towers — Crystal Towers, a 200-unit affordable housing structure in Winston-Salem that was built in the 1960’s has experienced severe deterioration in recent years, with residents raising concerns about the living conditions and affordable housing advocates urging the city to allocate funds from its ARPA stimulus money to pay for the necessary repairs, initially estimated at $7 million. The Housing Authority of Winston-Salem (HAWS) indicated an intention to sell Crystal Towers due to the steep costs associated with its maintenance, which was met with concern and resistance from tenants and advocates (Hewlett, 2021).
On January 18th, HAWS announced that Crystal Towers would not be sold — with tenants and advocates celebrating the decision as a major win for affordable housing. This decision follows years of uncertainty surrounding the fate of the building.
Additionally, HAWS has committed to a significant $10 million renovation of Crystal Towers. Renovation plans included the replacement of two malfunctioning elevators, which is a top priority for disabled tenants. Funding for these renovations will mainly come from the Housing Authority, supplemented by city funds sourced from federal COVID-19 relief dollars. Additionally, plans were also supposed to include work on a floor-by-floor basis, updating plumbing and electrical systems, and upgrades like painting and replacing carpets.
Tenants and advocacy group Housing Justice Now (HJN) played a key role in preventing the sale and securing the commitment for renovations, having petitioned the city to refrain from selling the building. This tenant-led initiative, including a petition signed by the majority of the building's residents and approximately 2,000 community members, was foundational in reversing the decision. Now, HJN continues to fight alongside residents of Crystal Towers for the repairs that were promised to the residents two years ago. Samuel Grier, a tenant of Crystal Towers and advocate with HJN said, “We will be watching. We’re going to be vocal. We don’t want no wool pulled over our heads. We want results. We gonna get our results (Denyer, 2022; Zelniker, 2022).”
As of September, 2023, despite public commitment to this $10 million renovation plan to repair Crystal Towers by Mayor Allen Joines and the HAWS, these repairs and improvements have not been made. Tenants, including elderly and disabled people, are still without working elevators in addition to continued deterioration of the building as maintenance and upkeep have been neglected. “I remember being in a meeting with (former executive director) Larry Woods in 2018 where he promised that the elevators would be fixed,” said Dan Rose, a community organizer with Housing Justice Now (HJN) advocacy group. “That’s five years ago. And yet here we are.” (Sexton, 2023) On September 12, 2023 HJN held a rally in Solidarity with Crystal Towers United to demand expedited repairs, city funding, and a voice in the process.
Union Cross Road Property Sale — The city recently approved the sale of a 72-acre property on Union Cross Road to Front Street Capital for $8 million. While some council members, including D.D. Adams, suggesting using the proceeds for affordable housing, others believe the money could be utilized for different economic development projects (Young, 2022).
The City's Affordable Housing Development (AHD) program — A city program is encouraging the expansion of affordable housing. It is open to both non-profit and for-profit developers, offering various forms of financial assistance for affordable housing development projects. To qualify, projects must guarantee at least 30 years of affordability, with a strong preference for projects that pool multiple funding sources, provide rental assistance, and collaborate with local service groups (Community Development Department, City of Winston-Salem, n.d.).
Editor’s note — The local housing projects and opportunities described above represent what staff researchers were able to find in the public domain with a limited time budget — this list is exemplary and by no means exhaustive.
The need for a comprehensive housing strategy and approach to affordable housing was identified by Participants as well as the need for widespread community collaboration in order for progress to be made.
It was further mentioned that the Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) of 1977, which mandates that banks assist in community development, represents a major potential funding source that has been underutilized locally (Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, 2022). Truist Bank was named specifically for having significant investment funds set aside for affordable housing — and that other banks likely have similar funds (North Carolina Housing Coalition, 2021).
Further, the creation of a community equity fund was recommended to enable community members to invest in addressing the housing problem, making them both investors and beneficiaries of the outcome. Lastly, the potential for local investment opportunities that may be possible, specific to North Carolina's laws relevant to the US Security and Exchange Commission (SEC), was lifted up as important to explore.
"The city's allocation of $30 million for affordable housing is a start in the right direction, but as we know that amount is a drop in the bucket as it relates to the need in our community. Our housing crisis is with people whose incomes do not exceed the federal poverty level of 80% of the area median income and who are sometimes paying more than 50% of their income for housing. We can do better as a city and should look to other cities that are outpacing us in affordable housing development and are allocating hundreds of millions of dollars. Affordable housing should be our number 1 priority in this city. Almost every social determinant of health is connected to housing. We have a history of disinvestment in our low-income neighborhoods. We must break this cycle if we want some sense of equity in neighborhoods that are most in need!” — Paula McCoy
When a lot of a family's income goes towards housing costs, like rent or a mortgage, they have less money for other essentials like food, medical care, and transportation. This can lead to financial stress and hardship. One way to measure this is to look at housing costs as a portion of a family's income. If a family spends more than 30% of their income on housing costs (including things like utility bills, property taxes, insurance, and other related costs), they are considered to be ‘housing cost burdened.’
In WS/FC, there's a racial divide when it comes to being housing cost burdened. About 37% of white, non-Hispanic residents spend over 30% of their income on housing, compared to 41% of both Black, non-Hispanic residents and Hispanic/Latino residents.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
The homeownership rate tells us what percentage of people live in a home they own. Owning assets like a home, a savings account, investments, or even a car can offer a safety net against unforeseen expenses, reducing the chances of falling into poverty. Although homeownership rates don't give us a picture of a person's total wealth or the actual value of their homes, they do show us who owns a valuable asset, which can provide financial stability.
Looking at the data from Forsyth County, we find that 77% of non-Hispanic, white residents live in a home owned by someone in their household. However, the figures are lower for non-Hispanic, Black residents and Hispanic/Latino residents, with only 56% and 55% respectively living in a home owned by someone in their household.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
A property value is the amount of money someone is willing to pay for a home or a piece of land. When people take the American Community Survey (ACS), they're asked to estimate how much they think their property would sell for if it were on the market. While this estimate is subjective and based on the person's opinion, it still provides a fair representation of property values in Forsyth County.
When it comes to property values, there's a difference based on race. The typical or ‘median’ value of homes owned by white, non-Hispanic individuals is $225,000. For homes owned by Black, non-Hispanic individuals, the median value is lower, at $190,000. The ‘median’ is the middle value in a list of numbers, where half the numbers are above it and half are below it.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Community members brought attention to essential opportunities related to housing that were not adequately highlighted in the report, specifically emphasizing the need for a fair and equitable assessment of houses in East Winston-Salem. Additionally, community members pointed out the potential for reusing dilapidated and abandoned housing by developing them into land trusts, thereby allowing those most affected to have a say in their transformation into affordable housing. These insights from the community underscored the significance of addressing these opportunities within the broader context of housing in WS/FC.
This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Participants expressed that Black people in WS/FC enjoy a rich cultural heritage. They share a common history, stories of resistance and resilience, and cultural ways of knowing and being that are built upon a value for community. There are stories of creativity, ingenuity, industry, resistance, and success. There is a history of organizing in an effort to advance their interests and effect change.
Locally, community groups organized to advocate for Black history to be taught in schools so that all people understand the profound legacy and contributions of Black peoples throughout the diaspora, Participants noted. Some sought the inclusion of financial literacy classes in the public school curriculum so that youth may learn to break the bonds of poverty and build wealth, as well as participate in transforming the local economy to be more inclusive.
Teaching Black history to Black students is of vital importance for several reasons. One of the primary reasons is representation. When students learn about historical figures and events that reflect their own identity, they can feel more seen, acknowledged, and valued, which can contribute to a more positive self-image and stronger sense of identity.
Additionally, Black history is full of narratives of resilience, resistance, innovation, and accomplishment in the face of immense odds. Knowledge of these narratives can instill a sense of pride, inspire ambition, and empower Black students to overcome their own challenges.
Furthermore, studying Black history offers a fuller, more accurate depiction of history, prompting critical thinking about systemic issues such as racism and social justice. A deeper understanding of historical context can illuminate the roots of present-day disparities and conflicts, providing students with a broader perspective.
Finally, gaining knowledge of one's cultural heritage and understanding diverse perspectives can enhance cultural competency. This understanding fosters respect and empathy for differing experiences and viewpoints, fostering an inclusive environment (Banks, 1993; King, 1991; Woodson, 1933).
“Children make the best theorists, since they have not yet been educated into accepting our routine social practices as "natural," and so insist on posing to those practices the most embarrassingly general and fundamental questions, regarding them with a wondering estrangement which we adults have long forgotten. Since they do not yet grasp 'our social practices as inevitable, they do not see why we might not do things differently (hooks, 1994).”
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Adinkrahene (or Chief of the Adinkra symbols) represents greatness, charisma, and leadership.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Participants highlighted that alternatives to the science, technology, engineering, math, and arts economy are being explored to provide new, more independent opportunities — ventures to further promote economic development, such as cutting grass, plowing snow, and raking leaves. These activities were noted to have long provided supplemental, seasonal, and entrepreneurial income — they are a part of the legacy of Black peoples and represent sustainable, year-round ventures.
Participants emphasized a shift from traditional roles in science, technology, engineering, math, and arts to more grassroots and immediate ventures. They highlighted activities like cutting grass, plowing snow, and raking leaves as demonstrating real opportunities that are more independent and locally grounded. This emphasis furthers the economic development of the Black community through self-reliant and entrepreneurial avenues.
A Comparative Look: The Underground Economy of Maquis Park
Sudhir Venkatesh's "Off the Books: The Underground Economy of the Urban Poor" offers a vivid perspective of a similar trend in a different context. The book chronicles the intricate workings of Maquis Park, a poor Black community in Chicago's Southside. Here, unregulated, untaxed, and unreported jobs forms the crux of a thriving ‘underground’ economy. This isn't the economy of high tech or corporate ladders, but of day-to-day survival: women who cater local lunches, mechanics working out of back alleys, and even salons doubling as gambling joints in the evenings. These activities, though absent in formal records, are essential to the community's survival.
Much like the insights from Winston-Salem, Venkatesh's observations underscore the interconnectedness and reliance within the community. Every member, whether a street vendor or a mediator, is a crucial thread in the intricate web. Their work, driven by grit and innovation, is not just about earning a living, but also about communal solidarity and resilience.
Like Maquis Park residents, the WS/FC community isn't merely seeking to earn pay, but to foster community solidarity, resilience, and a sense of self-reliance. The community is able to chart its own course, independent of conventional economic structures, echoing the sentiments of countless other communities like Maquis Park across America (Venkatesh, 2009).
Participants expressed a perception of unionism as illegal in Winston-Salem and noted that this has not deterred the Black community from forming spaces of community building to craft solutions to the problems resulting from marginalization within the local economy.
Editor’s note: Participants expressed a perception that unionism is illegal, but the legality of unionsim and associated legal barriers are more complex. North Carolina's right-to-work law, ratified in 1947, greatly limits the power of labor unions in the state. The statute makes ‘closed shops’ illegal (when union membership is a condition of being hired as well as of continued employment). Some also believe right-to-work laws weaken labor unions, depress wages, and lead to more unsafe workplaces. Additionally, it's illegal for local government entities to have union agreements for public employees, meaning public workers don't have the same collective bargaining rights as private sector employees. So while unions are not expressly illegal, they are in some cases, and limitations to unionism exist (Williams, 2006).
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Dwennimmen (or Ram’s Horns) symbolizes strength, humility, and the importance of being humble despite power.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Participants expressed a desire to maintain the value of collective work and responsibility by developing coalitions that protect, defend, and support Black lives and Black economic mobility. Participants advanced community organizing as a tool for responding to the needs of Black people in WS/FC in particular. Further, participants lifted up two specific needs:
The American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) is a U.S. economic stimulus bill passed in 2021 to speed up the country's recovery from the economic and health impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. It provided funding to states, municipalities, and local governments to be used in a variety of ways, including infrastructure, public health, education, and more. Some municipalities have sought community input on how these funds should be spent, recognizing the importance of participatory budgeting and ensuring that investments are aligned with community needs.
The American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA) was signed into law in March, 2021. It allocated $350 billion to eligible state, local, territorial, and Tribal governments. Of this amount, Forsyth County received approximately $74 million.
To figure out how to use the funds, Forsyth County Commissioners initiated public application processes, inviting local agencies and internal County Departments to submit funding requests. According to its website, the County sought resident input on July 1, 2021 — it is not clear from the website what this public input process looked like.
Participatory budgeting (PB) is a democratic process that empowers community members to decide directly on allocation of public funds and budgets. First introduced in Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 1989 as a strategy to tackle poverty—which subsequently led to a nearly 20% reduction in child mortality—PB has expanded its reach to over 7,000 cities worldwide. It has been implemented across various entities, including states, counties, cities, housing authorities, schools, and other institutions. Described by The New York Times as “revolutionary civics in action,” PB deepens democracy, nurtures stronger connections, and increases the equitable distribution of public resources, emerging as a vital tool for informed decision-making, and helping to ensure investments are aligned with the genuine needs of community peoples. This is especially relevant in the context of the distribution of ARPA funds.
US cities like Omaha and Tulsa have taken significant steps to involve their communities in decision-making processes. Omaha has prioritized increasing transparency and allowing greater community involvement in its budgeting. Tulsa has launched several initiatives to enhance community engagement. The 1921 Tulsa Race Massacre Centennial Commission tells the story of the city's past and works to revitalize the Greenwood District, known historically as ‘Black Wall Street’. The Gathering Place, a community park, embodies Tulsa's commitment to spaces designed foster unity. And an initiative called Educare directly addresses early educational disparities by providing quality early childhood education. Both cities are showcases for the importance of communal voices in shaping a city's future.
Collaborative governance models, where the government works directly with the community to invest in local initiatives, have been successful in many contexts. Such collaborations often yield more sustainable and community-centered outcomes. They harness local knowledge, build trust, and ensure that investments have a lasting impact.
In the current era of increasing community participation, many cities and municipalities are recognizing the value of resident input. Leveraging community insights to guide investments from funds like ARPA ensures that resources are allocated where they are most needed and can make the most significant difference (Pine & Geraghty, n.d.; Forsyth County Government, n.d.; Participatory Budgeting Project, n.d.; Franklin, Krane, & Ebdon, 2013).
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Community members highlighted the potential limitation of using financial literacy as the sole measure of prosperity. It was discussed that while financial literacy is one aspect of measuring income and wealth generation, it is crucial to acknowledge the historical marginalization and labor exploitation experienced by Black people locally and nationally. Community members proposed further research to identify the specific factors that contribute to income generation for Black residents in WS/FC, moving beyond the scope of financial literacy alone.
This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
A griot is a West African storyteller, historian, musician, and oral tradition keeper who holds an esteemed role within their community. Griots are responsible for preserving and transmitting the history, cultural heritage, and values of their people through oral narratives, songs, poetry, and music. They serve as custodians of collective memory, passing down knowledge from generation to generation and playing a vital role in preserving the cultural identity and continuity of their community.
Read more in the glossary.
Participants shared that the Black community of Winston-Salem/Forsyth County is resilient, even while the research process revealed multiple impacts of systemic oppression and marginalization — specifically mentioning prenatal care, food deserts, health insurance, transportation, and voter turnout.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Sankofa (or Go back and get it) Symbolizes the importance of learning from the past to move forward and gain wisdom.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Participants lifted up multiple assets for mitigating these negative impacts, noting that Black people have talents, skills, and capacities that are gifts to the community, alongside places of worship, neighborhood, community, cultural groups, and associations that lift Black life and cultural knowledge:
Taken together, these assets provide a cohesive ecosystem that can serve to build and sustain Black liberation, or freedom from the oppression and marginalization of the systems noted earlier in the report. It is the opportunity to participate freely, without disparity, in the advantages, opportunities, and promises of America.
Civic engagement encompasses various community interactions, including volunteerism and voter turnout. Voter participation is considered a key metric for community engagement and is linked to social trust and positive health outcomes.
In Forsyth County, voter turnout data for the 2020 Presidential and 2022 Midterm Elections shows a disparity based on race. Specifically, 74% of white citizens aged 18 and older voted in the 2020 Presidential election, compared to 65% of Black citizens; for the 2022 Midterm election, the figures were 54% for white citizens and 39% for Black citizens. The data did not include information on Hispanic/Latino residents due to incomplete voter registration data, leading to ambiguity in race categorization. It is possible that some of the voters who identified as white or Black also identify as Hispanic/Latino.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
Food deserts, also referred to as ‘food access’, are areas with little or no access to affordable and nutritious food. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) identifies areas that may have issues with food access. This report measures the percentage of residents living in low-income areas where many homes don't have a car and are far from a supermarket, or where a significant number of residents live more than 20 miles from the nearest supermarket.
In Forsyth County, there are noticeable differences in food accessibility depending on race and ethnicity. Between 2015 and 2019, nearly half of Black, non-Hispanic residents, and 38% of Hispanic/Latino residents lived in areas with food accessibility issues, as identified by the USDA. In contrast, only 11% of white, non-Hispanic residents faced these challenges.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
Prenatal care refers to the medical check-ups and support that people receive when they are pregnant. This care usually includes physical exams, weight checks, urine tests, and possibly blood tests and ultrasound exams, all aimed at monitoring the health of both the pregnant person and the baby.
In Forsyth County, there are differences in early prenatal care (within the first three months of pregnancy) among different racial and ethnic groups. In 2021, 84% of white, non-Hispanic residents who gave birth received prenatal care in the first three months of pregnancy, compared to 78% of non-Hispanic Black residents, and 68% of Hispanic/Latino residents. The exact schedule of follow-up visits varies according to the individual needs and risks assessed by the healthcare provider.
A 2022 study from the Urban Institute’s Health Policy Center looked into whether parents and their children under 19 felt they were treated unfairly in health care settings due to reasons like their race, where they come from, or the language they speak. The results showed that 1 out of 8 parents felt they were treated unfairly because of these differences. Black parents, especially, felt this more, with 1 out of 5 saying they faced unfair treatment. Some parents even said their kids were treated unfairly because of their background. Many of these parents reported facing problems in their health care because of this unfair treatment (Dulce Gonzalez, Karpman, Kenney, & McDaniel, 2022).
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
Health insurance is vital for protecting people financially from the high costs of medical emergencies or chronic illnesses. It also encourages individuals to seek necessary medical care, including preventive measures, which helps maintain their overall well-being. Despite efforts like the Affordable Care Act (ACA) to increase insurance coverage, many Americans still lack insurance, especially in states that have not expanded Medicaid.
In Forsyth County in 2021, there are disparities in health insurance coverage among different racial and ethnic groups. About 83% of white adults had health insurance, compared to 77% of Black or African American adults, and only 50% of Hispanic/Latino adults. Changes in healthcare laws and policies can impact these rates and potentially lead to more uninsured people.
Find data sources and additional information on the Data & Tables page.
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Nkosoɔhene (or Chief of the Drummers) symbolizes the importance of leadership, coordination, and unity.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
This section reflects experiences and perspectives expressed by the community-based research (CBR) participants (Participants), coupled with relevant quantitative community data. These perspectives are not intended to be taken as broad sweeping generalizations for an entire cultural group or demographic. Neither are monolithic. Learn more about this report’s methodology and limitations.
Black Liberation:
Black Liberation is a multifaceted and dynamic movement rooted in the historical struggles and experiences of Black individuals and communities (both in the United States, as well as in the Diaspora). Viewpoints on Black Liberation are not homogenous; they encompass a wide range of religious beliefs, ideological perspectives, and theories of effective practice, reflecting the collective body of Black scholarship and activism, and the characteristic diversity of Black thought.
Recommendations for Community Benefit
Over the course of this project the Participants were eager to participate in social change and were very vocal about it — strategies for community benefit and action were noted throughout the process.
Responses about action opportunities from across the qualitative research were coded by staff and the major themes are provided below, as well as specific action opportunities noted in each section.
Recognition and Celebration of Black Identities: This involves understanding the complexity and diversity of Black identities, rejecting stereotypes, and promoting an understanding of intersectionality, which encompasses race, class, gender, sexuality, and religious affiliations.
Community Ownership and Leadership: There's a strong emphasis on community driven involvement, community ownership and co-leadership of community members in institutional activities, research, and policy-making that impact the community. This also includes sharing and disseminating research content to spark broader discussions and action.
Promotion and Empowerment of Black Culture: This includes financially supporting institutions, initiatives, and events that promote and celebrate Black culture, learning about the rich history of Black peoples, and prioritizing the utilization of the social capital within Black communities to achieve equity and increase the vibrancy index.
Healing and Trust Building: Recognizing and addressing trauma caused by systemic oppression, practicing healing justice, and rebuilding trust among institutions, researchers, and communities are all crucial to progress.
Improvement of Education for Black Youth: This includes addressing achievement gaps, ensuring an equitable allocation of resources, supporting community school models, tackling racial segregation within schools, improving teacher effectiveness, reforming school discipline practices, and exploring culturally-affirming alternative educational opportunities.
Economic Empowerment: There was an emphasis on the need to support Black entrepreneurship, increase Black economic mobility, lower employment barriers, provide additional supports for Black people in the job market, and increase representation of Minority and Women Owned Business Enterprises.
Community Wealth Building: This involves supporting models of cooperative economics and collective work, recognizing the potential of agriculture for economic prosperity, and investing in community-based solutions.
Housing Equity: This involves addressing the housing affordability gap, improving housing quality, ensuring fair assessments of houses in Black neighborhoods, fighting against lending discrimination and gentrification, and supporting strategies to increase Black homeownership.
Inclusive Curriculum and Alternative Economies: Advocacy for the inclusion of Black history and financial literacy in school curriculum, exploration of alternatives to STEAM economy, and further research into Black income and wealth are suggested.
Community Organizing and Use of Community Assets: This involves mobilizing community assets to address systemic challenges, investing in community-building spaces and recreational centers, supporting resident-led initiatives and entrepreneurial spaces, and building coalitions for Black lives and economic mobility.
Mental health awareness and accessibility are crucial aspects of promoting well-being and ensuring equitable access to mental health care, particularly within Black communities in the US. Mental health awareness involves fostering an understanding of mental health conditions, reducing stigma, and promoting open discussions about mental well-being. It aims to empower individuals to recognize signs of distress, seek support, and engage in self-care practices.
In the context of Black communities, mental health awareness takes on added significance due to the unique challenges and experiences faced by individuals within these communities. Historical and ongoing systemic racism, discrimination, and social inequalities contribute to higher rates of mental health concerns among Black individuals. Additionally, cultural factors, such as stigma, mistrust of mental health systems, and the impact of intergenerational trauma, may further influence mental health experiences.
Accessibility in mental health refers to the availability, affordability, and removal of barriers to mental health services and resources. It encompasses ensuring that individuals have equitable access to culturally competent and linguistically appropriate care, regardless of their socioeconomic status. Accessible mental health services are essential in addressing disparities within Black communities, as they can help overcome barriers related to financial constraints, lack of insurance coverage, transportation, and systemic biases in the healthcare system (Carter, 2007; Coates, 2015; PBS Religion & Ethics Newsweekly, 2015; DeGruy, 2017; Mental Health America, n.d.; U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, SAMHSA, n.d.; World Health Organization, 2019).
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Mpuannum (or Five Tufts of Hair) represents democracy, unity, and consensus-building.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
Introduction
Black Culture in WS/FC
Centering the Narrative
Black Life and Education
Impact of the Local Economy
Sovereign Economies and Black Entrepreneurship
A Place to Call Home
Collective Work and Responsibility
Black Cultural Abundance: Griots of WS/FC
About halfway through the making of this report, a community meeting was hosted on May 25, 2023, to get more feedback from the community. Even though this feedback wasn't from the primary data sources for the report, everyone, including community members and staff, thought this feedback was valuable and decided to include it in the final report — feedback relevant to this section of the report is provided below. Learn more about this report's methodology and limitations.
Community members expressed that the report could be strengthened through providing specific definitions of, Black Liberation, Community and Safety, noting that these definitions will provide important context for the overall report. Additionally, community members suggested expansions on mental health awareness and accessibility should be included in what is meant by Black Liberation
The West African Adinkra Symbol of Akoben (or War Horn) symbolizes vigilance, readiness, and the call to action.
History of the Adinkra cloth and symbols.
These books provide a primer to the concept of Black liberation, spanning historical, sociopolitical, and intersectional perspectives. They offer valuable insights into the ongoing struggle for justice and liberation and the contributions of Black thinkers, activists, and communities. This list should be considered exemplary, and by no means exhaustive.
TIER 2 GLOSSARY TERM
Income insufficiency is a measure of financial hardship that compares a household's income to their estimated expenses. This concept offers a more comprehensive picture of financial instability than traditional poverty rates, accounting for demographic and geographic factors, as well as temporal changes in expenses. Households are considered income insufficient when their incomes fall below the estimated cost of living.
This definition is specific to the quantitative measure referenced in this report. For more information on how income insufficiency is defined and measured see the income insufficiency section on the Data and Tables page.
TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
The Innovation Quarter, located in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, is a hub for research, business, and education in biomedical science, information technology, clinical services, and advanced materials. It's an enterprise of Wake Forest School of Medicine and part of Wake Forest Baptist Medical Center.
The Innovation Quarter is known for encouraging collaboration and innovation. The facilities include state-of-the-art research labs and classrooms, co-working spaces, and even residential and recreational spaces. The quarter has been instrumental in attracting tech startups, established companies, and renowned researchers, fostering economic development in Winston-Salem and Forsyth County.
It is important to acknowledge that the land upon which the Innovation Quarter is built was once home to the heart of Winston-Salem's Black community. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Depot Street (today's Patterson Avenue) played a vital role in Black life in early Winston. It served as the cultural and social center of the Black community, housing real estate offices, doctors' and lawyers' offices, drugstores, printing presses, barbershops, beauty shops, funeral homes, churches, movie theaters, and cafes. Of particular significance was the Depot Street Graded School, established in 1887—the first public school for Black children in Winston. Under the leadership of Simon Green Atkins, it expanded to become the largest and most significant public school for Black children and youth in North Carolina, offering primary and high school education as well as industrial training.
A historic marker can be found on the grounds of the Innovation Quarter, acknowledging this history: "Depot Street Graded School Site. When built in 1887, the Depot Street Graded School was the largest and most important public school for African Americans in North Carolina. Education pioneer, Dr. Simon Green Atkins, came to Winston as principal of the school in 1890. Under Atkins' leadership, the school expanded in 1894 and became home to Winston's first African American high school in 1895. The Depot Street Graded School burned in the 1920s.
Today, the Innovation Quarter stands as a symbol of innovation for Winston-Salem, and there have been efforts to use the venue to educate and spread awareness about the rich history and contributions of the Black community.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Intersectionality is a socio-political concept that offers a lens through which to examine the multiple layers of inequality that affect an individual and how different forms of discrimination interact. In 1989, Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term as a way to help explain the overlapping layers of oppression of African American women in her essay "Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics". Intersectionality, defined by Crenshaw as “a prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and exacerbate each other,” recognizes that multiple sources of oppression can disadvantage individuals: their race, socioeconomic class, gender, sexuality, religion, and other identity markers.
Rather than viewing these elements separately, intersectionality examines how these forms of discrimination are interconnected and calls for an analysis of co-occurring and mutually reinforcing forms of inequality. It acknowledges that people's experiences of privilege or oppression are complex and multidimensional and rejects the idea that people's identities can be simplified or divided into separate categories. For example, a person who identifies as a woman of color with a disability would face discrimination unique to the intersection of these specific identities.
Originally, intersectionality centered on feminism, highlighting how women face multiple and varying levels of discrimination. For example, a woman of color who is also a member of the LGBTQ+ community will face more discrimination than a straight white woman. Today, intersectionality has spread beyond feminism to describe how members of marginalized groups can meet stacked inequalities that stem from multiple facets of their identities.
In contemporary academic and social discourse, intersectionality is a lens to analyze societal structures and cultural patterns, illuminating dynamics that might not be visible otherwise. It's used in various fields, such as sociology, psychology, politics, gender studies, and more, to deepen the understanding of social inequality and to promote social justice.
See also: Identity
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Juneteenth, also known as Freedom Day or Emancipation Day, is an annual holiday commemorating the emancipation of enslaved African Americans in the United States. It specifically celebrates the announcement of the abolition of slavery in the state of Texas on June 19, 1865, two and a half years after the Emancipation Proclamation was issued. Juneteenth has become a symbol of freedom, African American heritage, and the ongoing struggle for racial equality.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Prenatal care refers to the healthcare services and support provided to pregnant individuals to monitor and promote the well-being of both the pregnant person and the developing fetus. However, it is important to acknowledge the significant disparities in access to and quality of prenatal care, particularly among Black mothers in the United States.
Black mothers in the U.S. face disproportionate barriers to receiving adequate prenatal care, which can lead to negative health outcomes for both the mother and the baby. These disparities may stem from various factors, including systemic racism, socioeconomic inequalities, implicit biases within healthcare systems, and unequal access to resources and healthcare facilities.
Addressing these disparities requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses efforts to reduce structural barriers, increase healthcare access and affordability, enhance cultural competency among healthcare providers, and ensure equitable distribution of resources. It is crucial to prioritize the elimination of racial disparities in prenatal care and work towards providing equitable and high-quality care to all pregnant individuals, regardless of their racial or ethnic background.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Racism is an extensive socio-political system where societal members are treated differently based on their racial or ethnic backgrounds. It is deeply ingrained in societies, institutions, and individuals, and is grounded in a hierarchy that ranks people based on their presumed racial superiority or inferiority. This ranking often leads to the dominant group accruing benefits at the expense of other groups.
Carter G. Woodson, often referred to as the "Father of Black History," was a pioneering African American historian, author, and journalist. He is best known for establishing Black History Month in the United States, but his writings and scholarship also delved deep into understanding the experiences and contributions of Black Americans throughout history.
A significant part of Woodson's theory about the connections between slavery and the racist ideal revolved around the concept of "mis-education." In his seminal work, "The Mis-Education of the Negro" (1933), Woodson argued that the education system in the U.S. indoctrinated Black Americans to accept white superiority and Black inferiority, essentially perpetuating racial hierarchies and the racist status quo.
Concerning the connections between slavery and racist ideals:
Education and Indoctrination: Woodson placed significant emphasis on the role of education in perpetuating racist ideals. He believed that both Black and white students were taught a skewed version of history and societal values that celebrated white accomplishments while minimizing or maligning Black contributions. This mis-education, in Woodson's view, was a direct outgrowth of the ideological systems developed to justify slavery, and it persisted long after slavery's end.
In essence, Carter G. Woodson argued that the racist ideas perpetuated to justify slavery did not disappear with the end of the institution. Instead, they became deeply embedded in American society, culture, and education, continually reinforcing racial hierarchies and white supremacy.
Racism can manifest in various forms:
Racism can result in a wide range of social, economic, and health disparities, from income inequality and educational achievement gaps to disparities in health outcomes and rates of incarceration.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Recreation centers, also known as community centers or leisure centers, are facilities that provide a range of recreational and social activities for individuals and communities. These centers serve as gathering places where people can engage in various sports, fitness programs, cultural events, educational activities, and social interactions. Recreation centers often offer amenities such as sports courts, swimming pools, fitness equipment, classrooms, meeting spaces, and organized programs for people of all ages.
Recreation centers hold particular significance for Black communities in the United States. They play a crucial role in fostering community engagement, promoting physical and mental well-being, and addressing social and cultural needs. These centers can serve as safe spaces that offer opportunities for leisure, personal development, social connection, and community building.
Historically, recreation centers have provided Black communities with important resources, particularly during times of segregation and limited access to public facilities. They have served as places where African Americans could gather, participate in recreational activities, and create supportive networks. Recreation centers have played a role in nurturing talent in sports and arts, providing platforms for cultural expression, and empowering individuals and communities.
Research has emphasized the positive impact of recreation centers on Black communities, including promoting physical health, fostering social cohesion, enhancing personal development, and addressing disparities in access to recreational opportunities. These centers contribute to the overall well-being of Black individuals and communities by offering spaces for cultural preservation, community organizing, and empowerment.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
Redlining is a discriminatory practice that began in the United States in the 1930s, where financial institutions, insurance companies, and other organizations systematically denied or limited financial services in specific neighborhoods, most commonly in urban, racialized communities. The term "redlining" originates from the color-coded maps created by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC). On these maps, areas deemed "hazardous" for investment, often those inhabited by African Americans or immigrants, were outlined in red.
The effects of redlining were far-reaching and devastating, leading to disinvestment in these neighborhoods, exacerbated poverty, and perpetuation of socioeconomic disparities. Despite being outlawed in the late 20th century, the legacy of redlining continues to contribute to racial wealth gaps and segregation in American cities.
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY TERM
A "right-to-work" state is one that has enacted legislation prohibiting agreements between labor unions and employers that make membership in a union, or payment of union dues, a requirement for employment. These laws are rooted in Section 14(b) of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947, which allows states to pass such legislation. As of 2021, there were 27 "right-to-work" states in the United States.
While the stated purpose of "right-to-work" laws is to protect workers' freedom of association and choice, critics argue that these laws weaken labor unions, depress wages, and lead to more unsafe workplaces.
See also: Labor Union
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TIER 1 GLOSSARY REVIEW
R.J. Reynolds, born as Richard Joshua Reynolds, was an American businessman and entrepreneur. He is best known as the founder of the R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, one of the largest and most influential tobacco companies in the United States.
R.J. Reynolds was born on July 20, 1850, in Patrick County, Virginia. He started his career in the tobacco industry by working for his father's tobacco farm and later established his own tobacco company in 1875. Reynolds revolutionized the industry by introducing mass production techniques and innovative marketing strategies, such as the iconic Camel cigarettes brand.
Throughout his career, Reynolds played a significant role in shaping the tobacco industry and its impact on society. His company became a major player in the American tobacco market and had a profound influence on cigarette manufacturing, advertising, and product development.
However, it's important to note that the tobacco industry, including R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Company, has faced criticism and legal challenges regarding the health risks associated with smoking and marketing practices targeting vulnerable populations.
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Safety refers to the state of being protected from harm, danger, or risk. It encompasses both physical and psychological well-being, where individuals feel secure, free from threat, and able to pursue their lives without fear of harm.
In the context of Black communities in the US, safety takes on added dimensions due to the historical and contemporary experiences of systemic racism, discrimination, and violence. Black communities have disproportionately faced various forms of harm, including police brutality, racial profiling, structural inequalities, and socio-economic disparities. Consequently, safety for black communities extends beyond individual well-being and includes addressing systemic injustices and promoting social justice.
The origins of the modern-day police system in the U.S. can be traced back to the "Slave Patrol." Instituted in the early 1700s, these patrols were designed to prevent slave uprisings, capture and return runaway slaves, and maintain strict control over the slave population. Notably, they had the authority to forcibly enter homes on mere suspicion of harboring runaway slaves. This system, built on racial control, persisted until the Civil War's conclusion and the 13th Amendment's passage. Following emancipation, the slave patrol system gave way to various other forms of racially biased law enforcement, such as the Black Codes and, later, Jim Crow laws. These racial disparities remain entrenched within the contemporary criminal justice system, with significant impacts on minority communities.
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School discipline practices refer to the policies, strategies, and actions used by schools to manage student behavior, promote a safe and orderly learning environment, and encourage positive behavior. These practices may include rewards and consequences, conflict resolution strategies, and a range of interventions to address behavioral issues. The goal is to foster a positive school climate that supports learning for all students.
There has been a significant shift in school discipline practices in recent years. Traditionally, discipline in schools often relied on punitive measures such as suspension, expulsion, or detention. However, research has shown that these methods can have negative effects, including lower academic achievement, higher dropout rates, and increased likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system.
Increasingly, schools are moving towards more positive discipline strategies, such as restorative justice practices, social and emotional learning, and positive behavior interventions and supports (PBIS). These approaches aim to help students learn from their mistakes, develop empathy, improve their social skills, and make positive changes in their behavior.
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Segregation is a practice or policy that involves the separation of a certain group or groups of people from the rest of society. This separation can be based on various attributes, such as race, gender, socioeconomic status, or religion, and it can occur in various contexts like housing, education, employment, and others.
Historically, segregation in the United States was consistently associated with unequal access to resources, opportunities, and social services. These historic inequities persist in many communities today because the damage done in the past has not been fully accounted for or repaired.
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Systems of marginalization and oppression refer to structural and societal mechanisms that exclude, disadvantage, or harm certain groups based on their perceived social differences such as race, gender, socio-economic status, ethnicity, sexual orientation, disability, and religion, among others. These systems are deeply embedded within societal institutions, including legal systems, education, healthcare, and economic structures, and are often perpetuated through cultural norms and biases.
Marginalization refers to the process by which certain groups are pushed to the edges of society, making them lesser in status and limiting their access to resources, opportunities, and decision-making processes.
Oppression, on the other hand, is the unjust exercise of authority or power over a group, often involving the systematic denial of basic human rights and freedoms. Oppression is often enacted by dominant groups to maintain and control power.
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Transportation, specifically in the context of transportation modes and systems that support local communities, refers to the movement of people and goods within and between geographic areas. It encompasses various modes of transportation, including public transit, walking, cycling, and private vehicles, as well as the infrastructure, services, and policies that enable transportation.
The relationship between transportation and Black communities in the United States is significant, as transportation systems can both contribute to and perpetuate existing racial inequities. Black communities often face transportation disparities, including limited access to reliable and affordable transportation options, inadequate infrastructure, and unequal distribution of resources.
Historical factors such as racial segregation, discriminatory practices, and disinvestment in Black communities have shaped transportation systems, resulting in limited public transit options and inadequate connectivity. These disparities can lead to reduced access to employment opportunities, education, healthcare, and essential services for Black individuals and communities.
Addressing transportation disparities requires a comprehensive approach that includes equitable transportation planning, improved public transit options, increased investments in infrastructure, and community engagement in decision-making processes. By prioritizing the needs of Black communities in transportation planning and policy, it is possible to enhance mobility, reduce transportation barriers, and promote social and economic opportunities.
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Trauma, in general terms, refers to the response to a deeply distressing or disturbing event that overwhelms an individual's ability to cope, causes feelings of helplessness, diminishes their sense of self and their ability to feel the full range of emotions and experiences. Trauma can have profound psychological and physiological effects, often leading to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety disorders, and other mental health conditions.
In the context of Black Americans, trauma can be viewed through both a historical and a contemporary lens.
Historical trauma refers to the cumulative emotional and psychological wounding over the lifespan and across generations, emanating from massive group trauma experiences. For Black Americans, this includes the legacy of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade, Jim Crow laws, and other systemic racist policies and practices throughout history. The impacts of this historical trauma can be seen in many aspects of life, including disparities in health, education, housing, and wealth.
Contemporary trauma among Black Americans encompasses ongoing personal, institutional, and systemic racism. This includes experiences of microaggressions, police brutality, racial profiling, and other forms of discrimination and violence. This can also include the vicarious trauma from witnessing racial violence, even through media reports.
Additionally, the concept of intergenerational trauma is relevant. Intergenerational trauma refers to trauma that isn't just experienced by one person but is transferred from the first generation of trauma survivors to the second and further generations of offspring. This trauma can influence mental and physical health, cultural identity, and socio-economic status.
Therefore, in relation to Black Americans, trauma is not just an individual phenomenon but a collective one, deeply rooted in a historical context and perpetuated by ongoing systemic racism and discrimination. It's also essential to note that while trauma has significantly impacted the Black American community, it does not define it. There are also narratives of resilience, strength, and healing.
To gain a fuller understanding of the traumatic experiences of Black Americans, which are diverse and complex, it is beneficial to explore beyond scholarly articles and statistics. Emotional, creative, and spiritual modalities, like poetry, can offer valuable insights into the lived experiences and depths of trauma within the Black community. Poetry, in particular, taps into the raw emotions and profound reflections of individuals, making it a potent medium for understanding. For those looking to delve into this perspective, the poetry collection, "Unhealed Trauma Queen: Personal poems for the hurt, broken, and unhealed queens" by Sidney Michelle Coleman provides an evocative lens into the experience of trauma from a Black woman poet.
The traumatic experiences of Black Americans are diverse and complex, and these sources provide a framework to understand those experiences— they are exemplary and by no means exhaustive.
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The United States of America, a North American nation of over 331 million people, is rich in cultural diversity derived from its long history of colonization and immigration. The land known today as the United States was stolen from Indigenous peoples who faced genocide and displacement at the hands of white European colonizers, beginning in the 15th century. Starting in the late 16th century, the transatlantic slave trade was used by colonizers to forcibly bring millions of Africans to the Americas, establishing the roots of the Black American population.
This institution of slavery was not just brutal and dehumanizing, but it was also an economic engine that greatly contributed to the wealth and development of the United States. The labor of enslaved Africans was foundational in industries such as agriculture, particularly in the production of cotton, tobacco, and rice. This generated enormous wealth for the country, particularly in the South, and allowed the U.S. to become a leading economic power in the global market — a disparate economic legacy that continues to have long-lasting effects.
The institution of slavery entrenched racial hierarchy through the exploitation and oppression of African Americans. Following the Civil War and the abolition of slavery in 1865, the hope for racial equality in the brief Reconstruction era was short-lived with the rise of 'Jim Crow' laws that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Urban renewal policies in the mid-20th century often disproportionately impacted Black neighborhoods, resulting in forced displacement and community disruption.
The Civil Rights Movement emerged in the mid-20th century, leading to significant legal advancements like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. However, racial disparities have persisted in areas such as education, healthcare, and criminal justice. Contemporary issues such as institutionalized police brutality and the school-to-prison pipeline highlight the systemic nature of these injustices.
According to the 2020 Census, about 13.4% of the U.S. population identifies as Black or African American. This collective community has demonstrated resilience throughout history, persisting through adversity and making foundational contributions to American society. Their cultural richness and creative genius have significantly shaped arts, music, literature, cuisine, athletics, scholarship, science, technology, theology, and every other facet of American culture. While challenges persist, the resilience, determination, and vibrant cultural legacy of Black Americans continues to nourish the promise of a liberated, just, and joyful future.
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Urban renewal, also known as urban redevelopment, is a program of land redevelopment in areas of moderate to high-density urban land use. This concept became popular in the mid-20th century and was seen as a solution to combat ‘urban decay’, improve the physical layout of cities, and make them more attractive to investment. Urban renewal often involved the demolition of ‘blighted’ or ‘outdated’ buildings, the improvement of urban infrastructure, and the construction of new buildings and facilities.
However, urban renewal programs in the United States have been controversial due to their impacts on specific communities, particularly Black and low-income communities. These programs often led to the displacement of residents without providing adequate affordable housing alternatives. Neighborhoods with predominantly Black residents were disproportionately affected, leading to what James Baldwin famously termed "Negro removal."
The process of urban renewal often resulted in the destruction of vibrant communities and led to social and economic disruption. While intentions behind urban renewal efforts were often described as ‘to enhance urban living conditions,’ in many cases, it exacerbated racial segregation, economic inequality, and community displacement.
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Voter turnout refers to the percentage of eligible individuals who participate in an election by casting their vote. It is a measure of civic engagement and reflects the level of public participation in the democratic process. Higher voter turnout indicates increased political involvement and a broader representation of the electorate in decision-making.
The relationship between voter turnout and Black communities in the United States is complex, and ongoing efforts to suppress voter turnout have disproportionately impacted these communities. Historically, Black communities have faced various barriers to voting, including racial discrimination and systemic voter suppression tactics. These efforts have included voter ID laws, restrictions on early voting and absentee ballots, polling place closures, and purging of voter rolls, which have disproportionately affected Black voters.
In recent years, there has been a resurgence of voter suppression efforts targeting Black communities. These efforts aim to undermine the voting power of marginalized groups and limit their influence on elections and policy outcomes. However, there has also been a strong response from civil rights organizations, community activists, and legal advocates who are working tirelessly to challenge voter suppression laws and protect the voting rights of Black communities.
Efforts to combat voter suppression include advocacy for expanded access to early voting, automatic voter registration, restoration of voting rights for formerly incarcerated individuals, and increased education and outreach in Black communities. These efforts seek to empower Black voters, protect their voting rights, and promote equitable political participation.
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Following the preliminary research activities for this project, a smaller Writing Team, composed of CBR participants, worked intensively with staff over the course of several months to discuss and prepare the final content of the report. Learn more about the methodology and limitations of this report.
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Winston-Salem and Forsyth County, North Carolina: Winston-Salem, located within Forsyth County in North Carolina, is a vibrant region known for its rich history. Originally established as two separate towns in the mid-18th century, Salem (a Moravian religious settlement) and Winston (an industrial city), the two towns consolidated in 1913 to become Winston-Salem.
Historically, Winston-Salem was a powerhouse of the tobacco and textile industries with the presence of Reynolds Tobacco Company and Hanes Brands Inc., respectively. It was also known for banking with the Wachovia Bank and Trust Company. Today, the city is a hub for innovation, health care, and arts, often described as the 'City of Arts and Innovation'.
In the present day, the economy of Winston-Salem and Forsyth County is driven by industries such as healthcare, education, and finance, with growing contributions from the technology sector. Prominent employers include Atrium Health Wake Forest Baptist (formerly Wake Forest Baptist Health), Novant Health, Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools, Truist, Wells Fargo, Reynolds American, Hanesbrands, the City of Winston-Salem, Wake Forest University, Forsyth County, and AT&T.
The population of Winston-Salem and Forsyth County is diverse, with a mix of racial and ethnic groups. As per the U.S. Census Bureau data, as of July 1, 2022, the county had a population of over 389,157 people.
Despite its growth and vibrancy, the community faces significant challenges, with very low rates of economic mobility and wealth disparities, particularly along racial and socio-economic lines. These complex, systemic issues continue to be the focus of many people and local initiatives that aim to foster community engagement and improve life for all residents.
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Narrative refers to the storytelling or representation of events, experiences, or a series of connected events in a coherent and meaningful way. It involves the construction of a plot, characters, setting, and a sequence of events that convey a particular message, theme, or understanding. Narratives play a crucial role in shaping human understanding, communication, and meaning-making processes.
Societal narratives encompass the stories, beliefs, and interpretations that shape the collective understanding and identity of a society or community. They often reflect the historical, political, and cultural values, ideologies, and norms of a particular group or nation. Societal narratives can include historical accounts, myths, legends, national narratives, and shared cultural symbols that contribute to a shared sense of identity and shape social cohesion.
Cultural narratives are specific to a particular culture or cultural group. They encompass the stories, rituals, customs, and traditions that are passed down through generations within a cultural community. Cultural narratives play a crucial role in preserving and transmitting cultural heritage, values, and knowledge. They help to define the identity and worldview of a cultural group, providing a sense of belonging and continuity.
These societal and cultural narratives have a significant impact on how individuals and communities perceive themselves and others. They shape collective memory, influence social norms, and can perpetuate dominant power structures or challenge them. Societal and cultural narratives can reinforce stereotypes, biases, and inequalities, but they can also be powerful tools for cultural preservation, social change, and fostering understanding among diverse groups.
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Winston-Salem/Forsyth County Schools (WS/FCS) is a public school district located in Forsyth County, North Carolina. WS/FCS is one of the largest school systems in North Carolina and serves the city of Winston-Salem and the surrounding Forsyth County area.
The district comprises a number of different types of schools, including elementary schools, middle schools, high schools, and specialized schools. It offers a variety of academic and extracurricular programs to meet the diverse needs and interests of its student population.
WS/FCS's mission is to provide a high-quality and equitable education that prepares each student to be a responsible citizen and a lifelong learner. It is committed to creating a safe, inclusive, and engaging learning environment where all students can thrive.
The district's student population is diverse, reflecting the racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic diversity of the wider community. As with many urban districts in the U.S., WS/FCS faces challenges related to educational equity, including achievement gaps among different student groups, school funding disparities, and the need for culturally responsive education.
The district has taken steps to address these challenges, through initiatives aimed at promoting equity, cultural awareness, and inclusivity in its schools. However, the impact of these efforts, and the extent to which they have been successful in addressing the district's challenges, is a subject of ongoing discussion and research.
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The construction of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, North Carolina, stands as a poignant example of how historical urban planning and transportation policies have contributed to racial segregation and disenfranchisement in American cities. This highway, known as the physical dividing line in Winston-Salem, serves as a barrier that separates predominantly Black communities from predominantly white ones.
During the mid-20th century, a period marked by the development of interstates and major highways, decision-makers often located these transportation projects in low-income and predominantly Black neighborhoods due, in part, to lower property values in these areas, reducing the cost of land acquisition for construction.
However, the placement of such highways had detrimental effects on the affected communities. In the case of Highway 52 in Forsyth County, it led to the displacement of Black residents, destruction of homes and businesses, and fragmentation of established Black neighborhoods. Moreover, the highway's presence effectively cut off these communities from the city's economic, educational, and social resources, contributing to racial and socio-economic segregation. The design of the highway, including limited crossing points, discouraged movement between the predominantly Black and white areas of the city.
In 1948, North Carolina experienced a severe polio outbreak, providing local authorities in Winston-Salem with an opportunity for urban renewal. Utilizing rhetoric that scapegoated poor Black neighborhoods as the source of the disease, city leaders sought to reshape Winston-Salem both physically and mentally. By framing these neighborhoods as a supposed threat to the white way of life, policymakers used terms like "urban renewal," "uplift," and "slum clearance" to justify removing the city's poorest Black residents.
This process displaced Black communities like Monkey Bottom, The Shakes, and Columbian Heights to pave the way for commercial property, industrial space, and the construction of Highway 52.
Columbian Heights is the neighborhood immediately surrounding Winston-Salem State University. It was founded by Simon Green Atkins in the 1890s and it was part of his twin vision of promoting Black education and homeownership. During the age of Jim Crow, Columbian Heights was home to many Black professionals: teachers, business owners, firemen, etc. It was a stable Black neighborhood.
The urban renewal policies of this era effectively contributed to racial segregation and the disenfranchisement of Black communities. Highway 52, cutting through East Winston's Black and brown neighborhoods, symbolizes the institutionalization of separate and unequal geography, perpetuating historical disparities in Winston-Salem.
Today, Highway 52 remains a stark symbol of racial segregation within Forsyth County. The predominantly Black neighborhoods on the eastern side of the highway face economic and social challenges, including higher poverty rates, under-resourced schools, and limited access to healthcare facilities. Conversely, the predominantly white neighborhoods on the western side generally enjoy better access to resources and opportunities.
While it is essential to acknowledge that many other factors contribute to these disparities, the role of urban planning decisions, such as the construction of Highway 52, should not be underestimated. They serve as enduring physical manifestations of systemic racism, further entrenching segregation and inequality in the community. Efforts to address these historic injustices are ongoing, but significant challenges remain.
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Health insurance refers to a contractual agreement between an individual or a group and an insurance provider, which offers financial coverage for medical expenses. It aims to mitigate the financial burden associated with healthcare services, including doctor visits, hospital stays, medications, and preventive care. Health insurance policies typically involve the payment of regular premiums in exchange for access to a specified range of covered healthcare services.
The relationship between health insurance and Black communities in the US is multifaceted. Studies have shown that Black individuals and communities face disparities in health insurance coverage compared to their white counterparts. Factors contributing to these disparities include systemic inequities, socioeconomic disadvantages, discriminatory practices, and barriers to access.
African Americans have historically experienced higher uninsured rates, which can lead to reduced access to healthcare services, delayed medical care, and increased financial strain. Lack of health insurance can contribute to health disparities, as individuals without coverage may forego or delay necessary medical treatments or preventive care.
Efforts to address health insurance disparities in Black communities have focused on expanding access to affordable coverage through initiatives like the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and Medicaid expansion. These policies aim to increase health insurance enrollment, reduce financial barriers, and improve access to necessary healthcare services for underserved populations, including Black communities.
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A griot is a West African storyteller, historian, musician, and oral tradition keeper who holds an esteemed role within their community. Griots are responsible for preserving and transmitting the history, cultural heritage, and values of their people through oral narratives, songs, poetry, and music. They serve as custodians of collective memory, passing down knowledge from generation to generation and playing a vital role in preserving the cultural identity and continuity of their community.
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Gentrification is a complex socio-economic process that involves the transformation of historically underinvested neighborhoods due to an influx of higher-income residents and real estate development. This process can lead to economic revitalization and the improvement of neighborhood amenities, but it often disproportionately impacts marginalized communities, particularly Black communities.
For Black communities, gentrification often leads to displacement due to skyrocketing housing prices and property taxes. It can result in the erasure of cultural history as long-standing businesses and community centers may be replaced by new development tailored to the preferences of wealthier newcomers. This can disrupt community networks and contribute to a sense of cultural and social loss.
Moreover, the associated economic development and increased policing that often accompany gentrification can contribute to a systemic pattern of racial inequality. Despite potential improvements in neighborhood services, the original residents, often people of color, may not reap the benefits if they're displaced or economically marginalized in the process.
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From a personal or household perspective, expenses refer to the money spent on goods and services for daily living. These typically include costs for housing (such as rent or mortgage payments), food, transportation, healthcare, clothing, education, utilities (like electricity, water, and internet), entertainment, and savings for future needs or emergencies.
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A food desert (also referred to as food access in this report) refers to an area, typically in urban or rural settings, where residents have limited access to affordable and nutritious food options. These areas are often characterized by a lack of grocery stores, supermarkets, or fresh food retailers within a reasonable distance. As a result, individuals living in food deserts face challenges in obtaining healthy and culturally appropriate food choices, leading to higher reliance on unhealthy processed foods and limited access to fresh fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
There is a notable connection between food deserts and Black communities in the United States. Studies have shown that predominantly Black neighborhoods are more likely to be food deserts, facing limited access to quality supermarkets and fresh food retailers compared to predominantly white neighborhoods. This disparity can be attributed to a range of factors, including systemic racism, socioeconomic inequalities, discriminatory retail practices, and historical disinvestment in Black communities.
Addressing the issue of food deserts in Black communities requires comprehensive approaches, such as increasing the availability of affordable and nutritious food options, supporting community gardens and farmers' markets, implementing policies to incentivize supermarkets to locate in underserved areas, and promoting urban agriculture initiatives.
Quantitative sections of this report describe census tracts as food deserts if they meet the United States Department of Agriculture’s (USDA’s) definition of low-income and have limited access to supermarkets. Limited access to supermarkets is defined as either 1) there being more than 100 housing units that do not have a vehicle and are more than half a minle from the closest supermarket or 2) many residents are more than 20 miles away from the closest supermarket. The USDA defines a census tract as low income if it has a poverty rate of 20% or higher or if the mediian income for that tract is less than 80% of the median income for the state or metropolitan area.
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Equity refers to the state, quality, or ideal of being just, impartial, and fair. The concept is often associated with social justice, and it's applied in considerations of fairness and justice within social, economic, health, and educational contexts, among others.
In practical terms, equity is about ensuring people have access to the same opportunities, but recognizing that advantages and barriers exist for different people. Therefore, it's not about promoting equal treatment for all, but rather equitable treatment that acknowledges and adjusts for these differences.
In education, for instance, equity would mean that personal or social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin, or family background are not obstacles to achieving educational potential and that all individuals are provided the support needed to realize their full potential.
In health, equity refers to the absence of avoidable or remediable differences among groups of people, whether those groups are defined socially, economically, demographically, or geographically.
In economic context, equity concerns the distribution of assets, resources, and income, and is often tied to concepts of economic fairness and justice.
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Economic mobility in the United States, particularly upward mobility, has been on a decline over the past few decades. Upward mobility refers to the ability of an individual or family to improve their economic status within their lifetime or from one generation to the next. This decline in mobility has had significant implications for the overall wealth and income disparity in the country, and the impact has been especially pronounced for Black communities.
In the U.S., wealth has been highly concentrated among white households, which on average hold about six times as much wealth as Black households. A number of factors contribute to this disparity, including systemic racism, discriminatory housing policies, unequal educational opportunities, and labor market discrimination.
Systemic racism and discriminatory policies like redlining have historically limited Black families' access to wealth-building opportunities like homeownership. For example, the Fair Housing Act, which prohibits discrimination in housing, was only enacted in 1968, and the effects of decades of legal housing discrimination continue to be felt today. Due to these and other factors, Black households are less likely to own their homes compared to white households, limiting their opportunities to build wealth.
Inequality in education further contributes to the decline in economic mobility for Black communities. Schools with predominantly Black student populations tend to have fewer resources, less-experienced teachers, and lower overall funding than schools serving mainly white students. This can affect the quality of education and limit the opportunities for students from these schools, leading to lower earnings in adulthood.
The impact of labor market discrimination should also not be underestimated. Studies have shown that Black individuals are often paid less than their white counterparts for doing the same jobs and are less likely to be hired for certain positions or promoted within a company.
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Discrimination refers to the unjust or prejudiced treatment of different categories of people, especially on the grounds of race, age, sex, or disability. In the context of Black peoples and communities, both historically and in contemporary society, discrimination often manifests as systemic biases and prejudice ingrained within social, political, and economic systems. These discriminatory practices and attitudes can impact various aspects of life, including employment, education, housing, healthcare, and the criminal justice system.
Historically, Black people have faced formalized systems of discrimination, such as slavery, segregation, and Jim Crow laws in the United States. These legal and societal structures enforced racial hierarchy, limited economic and educational opportunities, and severely constrained civil and political rights.
In contemporary times, the legacies of these discriminatory practices continue to manifest in systemic and institutional forms of discrimination. For example, in housing, the practice of redlining in the mid-20th century deprived Black communities of fair housing opportunities and access to loans, contributing to enduring wealth and neighborhood disparities. In the criminal justice system, racial profiling and biases in policing and sentencing disproportionately affect Black individuals.
In the labor market, studies have found persistent racial discrimination, with Black job applicants receiving fewer callbacks than equally qualified white applicants. In healthcare, racial disparities persist, with Black patients often receiving lower quality care than white patients.
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Diaspora refers to the dispersion or migration of a particular group of people from their original homeland or ancestral region to various locations around the world. It typically involves the spread of a community or culture across different geographical areas, often due to factors such as colonization, forced migration, or voluntary movement. Diaspora communities often maintain a collective consciousness and maintain connections with their ancestral homeland, while simultaneously adapting to and influencing the societies in which they reside.
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Demographics refer to the statistical characteristics of a population. These characteristics can include things like age, sex, income, education level, employment status, ethnicity, religion, and marital status. Researchers and marketers often use demographic information to understand more about a population's characteristics, needs, habits, and trends.
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Deliberative dialogue, also known as deliberative discussion or deliberative conversation, refers to a structured and inclusive process that brings individuals together to engage in respectful and thoughtful conversations on complex issues. It involves creating a space where participants can share diverse perspectives, examine multiple viewpoints, and explore potential solutions or actions through open and constructive dialogue.
The purpose of deliberative dialogue is to foster democratic participation, informed decision-making, and collective problem-solving. It aims to deepen understanding, build consensus, and generate recommendations or actions that reflect the shared values and interests of the participants. Deliberative dialogues often involve facilitated discussions, guided by principles of active listening, mutual respect, and the exploration of common ground.
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Culture is a complex and multifaceted concept that encompasses the beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, traditions, and artifacts that characterize a particular group of people. It refers to the shared patterns of thought, communication, and behavior that are learned and transmitted across generations. Culture influences how individuals perceive the world, interact with others, and make sense of their experiences. It includes various dimensions such as language, religion, social norms, arts, cuisine, clothing, and rituals, among others. Culture plays a crucial role in shaping individual and collective identities, providing a framework for understanding and navigating the world.
Black culture, specifically referring to the diverse cultures and traditions of Black people, is rich and multifaceted, encompassing a range of experiences, histories, and expressions. Black culture is rooted in the experiences of African and African diaspora communities, forged through resilience, resistance, and a quest for liberation. It encompasses diverse elements, including but not limited to language, music (such as jazz, blues, gospel, hip-hop, and reggae), dance (such as various African and African diaspora dance forms), visual arts, literature, cuisine, fashion, spirituality, and social practices. Black culture is characterized by a strong sense of community, creativity, innovation, and the preservation of cultural heritage. It serves as a source of pride, identity, and empowerment for Black individuals and communities.
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Cultural competency is a comprehensive framework that encompasses knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to effectively engage and interact with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds. It goes beyond simple awareness of cultural differences and involves a deeper understanding and appreciation of various cultural norms, values, beliefs, practices, and experiences.
At its core, cultural competency involves recognizing the inherent dignity and worth of all individuals, irrespective of their cultural background, and actively working to reduce biases, stereotypes, and discrimination. It includes developing the knowledge to understand the historical, social, and systemic factors that shape different cultures and the impact of culture on individuals' lives.
Cultural competency also encompasses developing the skills to communicate and interact respectfully and effectively with individuals from diverse cultures. This includes being able to adapt communication styles, understand non-verbal cues, and navigate cultural nuances. It involves actively listening, showing empathy, and demonstrating cultural sensitivity in order to build trust and rapport.
Moreover, cultural competency requires the cultivation of attitudes and beliefs that promote inclusivity, openness, and a willingness to learn from others. It involves recognizing and challenging one's own biases and assumptions, reflecting on cultural differences without judgment, and embracing diversity as a source of strength and enrichment.
By embracing cultural competency, individuals and organizations can foster inclusive environments, provide equitable services, and promote social justice. It plays a critical role in various fields, such as healthcare, education, social work, and business, where effective engagement with diverse populations is essential.
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Community is a dynamic and complex social construct that encompasses more than just a group of individuals. It is characterized by shared values, norms, customs, and a sense of belonging. Communities can be formed based on various factors, including geographic proximity, cultural or ethnic ties, shared interests, or common goals. They serve as platforms for social interaction, support, and collective action. Within a community, individuals form relationships, build social networks, and engage in reciprocal exchanges, contributing to a sense of cohesion and mutual support.
One crucial aspect of community is the development of a "sense of community," which refers to the subjective experience of belongingness, connectedness, and identification with a particular group. This sense of community arises from shared experiences, shared goals, and a feeling of being valued and accepted within the community.
Communities play a vital role in shaping individuals' identities, providing social support, and fostering a sense of purpose and meaning. They create spaces for collaboration, cooperation, and collective problem-solving. Communities can also serve as agents of change, advocating for social justice, and addressing community needs and concerns.
It is important to recognize that communities are not homogeneous entities. They are diverse, comprising individuals with different backgrounds, perspectives, and experiences. Community development and engagement efforts should strive to be inclusive, embracing diversity and promoting equity to ensure that all members have a voice and access to resources and opportunities.
In summary, community encompasses the social, cultural, and relational aspects of groups of individuals who come together around shared interests, values, and a sense of belonging. It provides a foundation for social cohesion, support, collective action, and the development of a shared identity and purpose.
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Colonialism is a system of political governance or economic exploitation in which a powerful country (often referred to as the colonizer or metropole) exerts control and influence over a weaker country or region (known as the colony).
Historically, colonialism involved the migration of people from the colonizing country to the new territory, often leading to a significant alteration in the demographics of the colony. These settlers often established communities that mirrored the social and political structures of their home country, sometimes completely supplanting indigenous populations and cultures.
In the economic dimension, colonialism often involved the extraction and exportation of resources from the colonized territory to the benefit of the colonizing power. This could include raw materials like minerals, agricultural products, or human labor, often facilitated through systems of forced labor or enslavement.
Colonialism also had profound cultural and societal impacts on the colonized territories. The colonizers frequently imposed their language, religion, and societal norms on the local populations. Over time, these practices often resulted in the loss or marginalization of indigenous cultures, traditions, and languages.
Colonialism also extends to the realm of knowledge and academia, where Eurocentric perspectives have been historically dominant. This is often referred to as epistemic or intellectual colonialism, which marginalizes non-Western knowledge systems and epistemologies.
Colonialism is often intertwined with imperialism, another system of domination and control. While the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they do have distinct meanings: colonialism is often viewed as the practice or system through which imperialism achieves its goals.
Contemporary post-colonial and decolonial studies critically examine the impacts of colonialism, seeking to challenge its legacies and address its ongoing effects, particularly in the fields of education, research, culture, and societal structures.
See also: Decolonizing
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Collective work and responsibility, often referred to as ‘Ujima’ or ‘active and informed togetherness in matters of common interest,’ is a recognition and respect for the fact that, without collective work and struggle, progress is impossible and liberation is unthinkable. It supports the assumption that ‘African’ is not merely an identity, but a destiny, a duty, a responsibility. Our collective identity in the long is a collective future. As a result, there as need for us as self conscious and committed people to shape our future with our own minds and hands and share the struggle together.
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Child care is a comprehensive term that encompasses the care, supervision, and education of a child or multiple children at a time. This service is typically provided to children ranging from infancy (approximately six weeks old) up to thirteen years of age. Child care can occur in various settings and is often classified based on these settings, such as in-home care, family child care (caregivers provide care in their own homes), and child care centers.
Child care services often extend beyond just watching the child and can include educational activities, organized play, and social interactions with peers. In many cases, child care providers also play an important role in the early education of children, helping to shape their social, emotional, and cognitive development. Additionally, child care providers often deliver basic needs such as meals and nap times and can help older children with homework and other school-related tasks.
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Black history refers to the historical experiences, contributions, achievements, and struggles of Black people, communities, and cultures. It encompasses the exploration and recognition of Black individuals' roles in shaping local, national, and global history across various fields, including politics, arts, sciences, social movements, and more. Black history emphasizes the unique experiences, resilience, and cultural heritage of Black communities and serves to challenge the historical exclusion and underrepresentation of Black narratives within mainstream historical accounts.
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Black Liberation is one of the Tier 1 Glossary Terms that was referred to Action4Equity’s Policy Committe for review. Given the centrality of the concept of Black Liberation to the focus of this report, and the extensive definition, sources, and reading list provided by the Policy Commitee, this term has been afforded its own page in the report. Go to the Black Liberation page.
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Wealth, from a personal or household perspective, refers to the total value of assets owned by an individual or family, minus any debts or liabilities. It encompasses various forms of financial resources and tangible assets, including cash, savings, investments, real estate, vehicles, and valuable possessions. Wealth represents accumulated resources that can provide financial security, opportunities, and a foundation for future economic well-being. It is a measure of an individual's or household's financial stability and capacity to meet present and future needs.
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Teacher experience generally refers to the number of years a teacher has been teaching or working in education. It is often used as a measure of a teacher's professional maturity and competence. Many studies have shown that teacher experience can significantly impact student achievement, especially in the first few years of teaching as teachers learn to manage their classrooms effectively and develop their teaching style.
A more nuanced understanding of teacher experience might also include aspects like:
While teacher experience is associated with effectiveness, it's also important to note that it's not the only factor. Other factors, such as teacher's subject matter knowledge, instructional skills, and classroom management skills, are also critical to student success.
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Teacher effectiveness refers to the ability of a teacher to promote positive educational outcomes among their students. There are multiple ways to measure teacher effectiveness, including student achievement growth, observation-based assessments of teacher practice, and surveys of students' experiences in the classroom.
Key aspects of teacher effectiveness often include:
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Financial sustainability refers to the ability of an individual, organization, or system to maintain and manage its financial resources over the long term. For individuals, it means having income that exceeds expenses, enabling savings or investments for the future. For organizations or systems, it involves having sound financial management practices, diverse and reliable sources of revenue, and the capacity to withstand economic shocks or downturns.
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Structural Violence
This refers to harm caused by systemic social structures, such as economic and political systems, that lead to social inequalities like poverty, lack of access to healthcare, and other forms of discrimination. It's often invisible because it's not tied to specific individuals or groups but is embedded in the structures that govern society.
Systemic Violence
This refers to violence that is ingrained and persistent within systems and structures in society. It's not an act of one individual against another, but rather, it's a series of practices and policies in a social or political system that cause physical, psychological, or economic harm to a specific group. Systemic violence often refers to the biases that are deeply embedded in such systems that disproportionately affect marginalized groups.
Institutional Violence
This refers to harmful practices that are systematic and routine within institutions, such as discrimination in workplaces, schools, prisons, and other organizations. It's violence that is seemingly normalized as it's a part of the established structure and protocol within the institution.
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Statistical significance is term used in research to indicate that the results are not likely due to random chance. When a finding is statistically significant, it suggests that there's a high likelihood that the result is true and not just a fluke or coincidence. It's a process researchers use to determine if what they found is ‘real’ or if it might have just happened by accident.
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Social justice refers to the fair and equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and privileges within a society. It is based on the principles of equality, human rights, and the pursuit of a just and inclusive society. Social justice aims to address systemic inequalities, discrimination, and oppression to ensure that all individuals have access to basic human needs, rights, and opportunities regardless of their social, economic, or cultural background.
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A social construct, in the context of social sciences and philosophy, refers to a concept or perception of something that is 'constructed' within a society or by individuals in a society. It's a theoretical concept used to understand how societies ascribe meaning to behaviors, interactions, events, and people.
Social constructs are often seen as an agreed-upon collective viewpoint of society, and they are created and maintained by people. They are not inherent natural or objective realities but are perceived as real because of society's consensus. These constructs can vary across cultures and societies, and can change over time.
For example, gender is considered a social construct because society has created specific roles and expectations for men and women, and these roles can vary widely in different cultures or historical periods.
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Social capital refers to the connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. It's the collective value of all social networks (who people know) and the inclinations that arise from these networks to do things for each other ("norms of reciprocity"). In other words, social capital is the value that we get from our relationships with each other.
It encompasses resources embedded in a social structure that can be accessed or mobilized in purposive actions. It includes various aspects such as information potential (access to data and knowledge), influence (exertion of control), social credentials (certifications of a person's social character), and reinforcement of identity and recognition.
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School funding refers to the financing that is allocated for the operation, maintenance, and improvement of schools. It is critical for providing quality education, including hiring and retaining competent teachers, providing necessary classroom resources, maintaining facilities, and supporting extracurricular activities. The amount and distribution of school funding can have a significant impact on educational outcomes and equity.
The main sources of school funding in the United States typically include:
Equity in school funding remains a major issue as schools in wealthier areas tend to have more local resources, leading to disparities in educational opportunities and outcomes.
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From a financial perspective, 'safety nets' are mechanisms put in place to protect individuals, families, and communities from economic shocks and financial hardship. These can include government programs like unemployment insurance, welfare benefits, or social security, which are designed to provide a minimum level of income or support to those in need.
Safety nets can also refer to financial protections like insurance policies, savings accounts, or other financial assets that individuals or families can draw on in times of need. In a broader sense, safety nets can include community-based or informal networks of support, like help from family or friends.
In all these forms, the purpose of financial safety nets is to reduce economic risks and vulnerabilities and to prevent poverty or financial catastrophe in the event of job loss, illness, disability, or other adverse life events.
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Resilience refers to the ability to adapt, recover, and bounce back in the face of adversity, challenges, or significant life stressors. It involves the capacity to maintain mental, emotional, and physical well-being, as well as positive functioning, in the midst of difficult circumstances. Resilience is characterized by the ability to harness internal and external resources, draw upon personal strengths, and cultivate coping strategies to navigate and overcome adversity.
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At the personal or household level, revenue refers to all the money that is brought into the household from various sources before any deductions or expenses. This could include salaries or wages from jobs, returns from investments, income from self-employment, rental income, social security or pension payments, alimony, and any other sources of income.
It's important to note that this is a gross revenue figure. To find the net income (the amount available for saving or spending), one would need to subtract any expenses or costs such as taxes, living expenses, loan repayments, and other liabilities.
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Representation refers to the act or process of depicting, reflecting, or presenting individuals, groups, or concepts in a manner that accurately portrays their diversity, experiences, perspectives, and interests. It involves providing a voice, visibility, and inclusion for historically marginalized or underrepresented groups in various domains, such as media, politics, education, and decision-making processes.
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Qualitative data refers to non-numerical information that is often descriptive and more difficult to measure than quantitative data. It encompasses various types of information such as personal experiences, descriptions, behaviors, emotions, beliefs, and cultural phenomena, among other aspects. Qualitative data is typically collected through methods like interviews, focus groups, observations, and textual analysis.
Unlike quantitative data, qualitative data seeks to explain 'how' and 'why' a particular phenomenon is occurring rather than 'how much' or 'how many', which is the focus of quantitative data. The goal of qualitative research is to gain a deep understanding of a specific organization, event, or phenomenon.
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Quantitative data refers to numerical information that can be measured or counted. It is often associated with structured data collection methods such as surveys, experiments, or observations, and can be represented statistically. This type of data is used when a researcher aims to quantify variables and generalize results from a sample to a population of interest.
Quantitative data can be further categorized as either discrete or continuous. Discrete data are countable values, often integers, such as the number of students in a class. Continuous data are measurable quantities that often include fractions or decimals, such as the weight of an individual or the temperature of a room.
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Purposive sampling is a non-probability sampling technique used in research to select participants based on specific characteristics or criteria that align with the research objectives. It involves intentionally selecting individuals or cases that possess relevant knowledge, expertise, or experiences related to the research topic. The goal of purposive sampling is to obtain a sample that can provide rich and relevant information to address the research questions or objectives effectively.
Researchers employ purposive sampling when they seek to target specific groups or individuals who possess unique perspectives or characteristics that are essential to the research study. This sampling method allows for the intentional selection of participants who can contribute valuable insights, diverse viewpoints, or specialized knowledge to enhance the understanding of the research topic.
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The poverty rate is the percentage of the population whose family or individual income falls below the poverty line, as determined by a government body. For instance, in the United States, the poverty line is established by the U.S. Census Bureau and varies based on family size and the ages of its members. The poverty rate is an economic indicator often used to assess the degree of economic hardship or wellbeing within a specific geographic area or among certain population groups.
While the poverty rate provides an important snapshot of economic hardship, it has been subject to several critiques. One of the primary critiques is that the poverty threshold may not accurately reflect the contemporary costs of living, especially as it varies across different regions. Additionally, it does not account for other forms of wealth or assets that a family or individual might possess, nor does it take into account expenses such as healthcare, child care, or transportation that can significantly impact one's disposable income. Moreover, the poverty line is typically set as a fixed amount, which may not capture those experiencing income volatility or sporadic poverty.
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Poverty refers to a state of deprivation characterized by a lack of access to basic resources and necessities required for a decent standard of living. It is often associated with inadequate income, limited access to education, healthcare, housing, and other essential services. Poverty can manifest in different forms, including absolute poverty (where individuals cannot meet their basic needs) and relative poverty (where individuals have significantly fewer resources compared to others in society).
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Post-secondary education refers to any level of education beyond high school or secondary school. This type of education includes undergraduate and postgraduate education like colleges and universities, as well as vocational or technical schooling. It can lead to an associate, bachelor's, master's, or doctoral degree, or provide a vocational or technical training certificate.
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An owner-occupied home is a residence that is lived in by the owner. This distinguishes from a rental property, where the owner typically leases the property to tenants, or a second home or vacation property that the owner might only live in part-time or seasonally. Owner-occupied homes are significant in terms of neighborhood stability and property maintenance, as homeowners are often more invested in their property and community compared to tenants.
Owners often have mortgages on their homes, and many mortgages have owner occupancy requirements. This means the borrower is required to live in the home as their primary residence for a certain period after closing.
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Neighborhood agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating food and growing plants within urban or suburban neighborhoods, typically on a small scale. It involves the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, herbs, and sometimes even raising small livestock or poultry for personal consumption or local distribution. Neighborhood agriculture often takes place in community gardens, backyard plots, rooftop gardens, or shared urban spaces, promoting local food production and enhancing food security within communities.
Neighborhood agriculture initiatives aim to foster sustainable and resilient food systems, increase access to fresh and nutritious produce, promote community engagement, and enhance environmental sustainability in urban areas. It can contribute to building stronger social connections, improving health and nutrition, and supporting local economies.
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The term "monolith" has multiple meanings depending on the context in which it is used. In general, a monolith refers to a large, singular, and uniform entity or structure that lacks diversity or variation. It can also be used metaphorically to describe a situation where there is a lack of diversity in thought, opinion, or representation.
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Methodology refers to the systematic approach and set of procedures employed in a research study or investigation to answer research questions, test hypotheses, or explore a particular phenomenon. It outlines the overall design, data collection methods, analysis techniques, and ethical considerations that guide the research process. The methodology provides a framework for researchers to gather reliable and valid data and draw meaningful conclusions.
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Median income refers to the income amount that divides a population into two equal groups, half having income above that amount, and half having income below that amount. This is different from the average, or mean, income, which is calculated by dividing the total income of a population by the number of individuals or households. Because the median is the middle point of a distribution, it is less affected by extremely high or low incomes and can provide a more accurate picture of a population's typical income.
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Matriculate is a verb that refers to the process of being formally admitted or enrolled into a college or university, often as an undergraduate student. After the enrollment process is complete, a student is said to have matriculated at that institution.
The term can also be used more generally to refer to the progression from one grade or level to another within an educational system.
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Marginalization refers to the process by which individuals or groups are pushed to the edges or periphery of society, often resulting in their exclusion from the resources, opportunities, and power structures that are available to the dominant or privileged groups in society. Marginalized individuals or groups may experience social, economic, and political disadvantages, leading to their limited participation and influence within society.
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Margin of error is a measure used in statistics to express the amount of random sampling error in a survey's results. It shows how much the results might differ from the actual or real value being measured. For example, if a survey result is 50% with a margin of error of 3%, the real result could be anywhere between 47% and 53%.
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"Livable Income," also often referred to as a "living wage", is the income level that allows an individual or family to afford adequate shelter, food, and other basic necessities. The goal of a livable income is to ensure that individuals or families can live above the poverty line and meet their basic needs without government assistance. The amount considered as a livable income can vary greatly depending on geographical location, family size, and specific needs.
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A labor union, also known as a trade union, is an organized association of workers, often in a particular industry, that collectively advocate for their rights and interests. Labor unions aim to negotiate with employers over issues related to working conditions, wages, hours, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights. They often work through collective bargaining and industrial action, and they also provide legal representation and support to their members in disputes with management over violations of labor rights.
See also: ‘Right to Work’ State
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Justice, a concept with multiple dimensions and interpretations, is generally understood as moral rightness based on ethics, law, fairness, and equity. It involves the enactment of both rewards and punishments to maintain this sense of rightness and legality. There are several categories into which justice can be divided.
Distributive justice refers to the equitable allocation of assets, resources, and privileges across society. It focuses on issues such as the fair distribution of wealth, access to resources, and socioeconomic inequalities.
Retributive justice, on the other hand, is concerned with the just imposition of punishments or penalties on those who have violated laws or rules. It's grounded in the principle of proportionality, where the punishment must be proportionate to the crime committed.
A third category, restorative justice, shifts the focus towards reconciliation, healing, and the restoration of harmony. Rather than emphasizing punishment, restorative justice seeks to repair the harm caused by a wrongdoing, involving all stakeholders – the offender, the victim, and the community – in the process of achieving justice.
Finally, procedural justice refers to the fairness and transparency of processes leading to outcomes. It does not directly concern the distribution of resources, but rather the procedures and processes that dictate these distributions. It underscores the importance of impartiality, openness, and respect for the rights of all parties involved in decision-making processes.
In all its forms, the concept of justice remains central to societal cohesion, maintaining a balance between individual rights and communal harmony.
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An institution refers to an established organization, structure, or system that performs specific functions and serves a particular purpose within society. Institutions can encompass formal entities, such as government bodies, educational institutions, and legal systems, as well as informal systems and practices that shape social interactions and behavior.
In the context of systemic injustices, institutions play a crucial role. They can perpetuate or challenge existing inequalities and power imbalances within society. Certain institutions may have embedded biases, discriminatory practices, or unequal distribution of resources, resulting in systemic injustices that disproportionately affect marginalized and disadvantaged groups.
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Inflation is the rate at which the general level of prices for goods and services is rising, and, subsequently, purchasing power is falling. Central banks attempt to limit inflation — and avoid deflation — in order to keep the economy running smoothly.
In other words, inflation is an economic term that refers to an environment of generally rising prices of goods and services within a particular economy. As general prices rise, with all things unchanged, people tend to buy less as their money has less purchasing power. Over time, inflation erodes the purchasing power of money. That is, you would need more money to buy the same amount of goods or services in the future compared to now.
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From a personal or household perspective, income refers to the total amount of money earned by an individual or a household over a specific period of time. This income can come from various sources such as salaries or wages from employment, profits from businesses or self-employment, returns from investments (like dividends or interest), rental income from properties, pensions, social benefits, or any other money received on a regular basis.
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Inclusion refers to the practice of ensuring that individuals of all backgrounds, abilities, and identities are welcomed, valued, and actively involved in all aspects of social, cultural, economic, and political life. It involves creating an environment that embraces diversity, promotes equal opportunities, and respects the rights and dignity of every person. Inclusion goes beyond mere representation and seeks to remove barriers, address systemic inequalities, and foster a sense of belonging for everyone.
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Identity refers to a person's understanding, perception, and sense of self, encompassing various aspects of individuality, such as personal characteristics, beliefs, values, cultural affiliations, and social roles. It is shaped by internal factors, including personal experiences and self-reflection, as well as external influences, such as societal norms, cultural contexts, and interpersonal relationships. Identity is a dynamic and multifaceted concept that evolves over time and can intersect with other dimensions of a person's identity, such as race, gender, sexuality, and ethnicity.
See also: Intersectionality
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Housing quality refers to the overall condition and suitability of a residential dwelling, encompassing various aspects that determine its habitability, safety, comfort, and functionality. It involves evaluating the physical attributes, structural integrity, environmental conditions, and amenities of a housing unit.
Key factors considered in assessing housing quality include:
Assessing and improving housing quality is vital for promoting residents' well-being, health, and overall quality of life.
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Housing cost burden (also referred to as rent cost burden in this report) refers to the situation where a household spends a significant proportion of its income on housing expenses. The U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) defines households that spend 30% or more of their income on housing costs as "cost-burdened," and those that spend 50% or more as "severely cost-burdened.” This can include expenses such as rent or mortgage payments, utilities, taxes, and maintenance.
A high housing cost burden can significantly impact the financial stability, health, and overall well-being of a household. When a substantial portion of income is allocated to housing, it can restrict a family's ability to invest in other necessary areas such as education, health care, transportation, or saving for emergencies, leading to financial instability and exacerbating existing poverty. The financial stress and limited resources can also have indirect effects on physical and mental health outcomes.
Moreover, severe housing cost burden can lead to housing instability and increased risk of eviction, as households may not be able to cover their housing costs in the event of unexpected expenses or a sudden job loss. This instability can disrupt children's education, as families may be forced to move frequently and may not be able to afford to live in neighborhoods with high-quality schools. Lastly, high housing cost burdens can hinder community involvement and the building of social connections, as families dealing with housing instability may struggle to access local resources and support.
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Homeownership refers to the state or condition of owning a home, rather than renting or leasing. Homeownership is often seen as a key component of the 'American Dream,' representing economic stability, independence, and an opportunity to accumulate wealth. It also impacts the social dynamics of a community, with studies suggesting homeowners are more likely to be involved in community activities and local governance.
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Health, as broadly defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is not merely the absence of disease or infirmity but encompasses a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being. This definition demonstrates the multidimensionality of health, incorporating various aspects of an individual's life.
Physical health relates to the functional operation of body systems and organs. It primarily focuses on an individual's physical condition, determined by factors such as regular exercise, balanced nutrition, adequate rest, and appropriate medical care. It's the most noticeable aspect of health, as most health issues manifest physically. However, it's important to note that physical health doesn't stand alone but is intertwined with all other aspects of health.
Mental health, as described by the American Psychological Association, is a state of well-being where individuals realize their own potential, can cope with ordinary life stresses, can work productively and fruitfully, and contribute to their communities. Mental health is a crucial part of overall health as it influences how we think, feel, and act. It also plays a part in determining how we handle stress, relate to others, and make choices. Mental health is critical at every stage of life, from childhood and adolescence through adulthood.
Emotional health refers to our capacity to handle emotions, reactions, and relationships effectively. It's the ability to identify and manage one's emotions, whether positive (like joy and love) or negative (like fear, anger, and sadness). A strong emotional health base equips us to tackle emotional challenges, recover from personal issues, and adapt to change and stress without severe disruption.
Social health encompasses our ability to establish and maintain positive relationships with others. It reflects how comfortably we interact and form meaningful relationships with other people, adapt in social situations, and our sense of belonging. Socially healthy individuals can effectively navigate and maintain comfortable relationships in family, school, work, and social situations.
Spiritual health pertains to a sense of coherence, meaning, and purpose in life. It often revolves around individuals' values, beliefs, purpose, identity, and ethics. While some people may find their spiritual health rooted in organized religion, others may seek it through other sources such as art, nature, or connections with others. Spiritual health can provide a source of strength, resilience, and comfort.
Cultural health refers to how cultural norms, practices, and values influence individuals' health behaviors and perceptions. It is about acknowledging and respecting the diverse cultural experiences that impact an individual's approach to healthcare, including how they perceive illness, how they seek and engage with health services, and the health practices and traditions they maintain.
In conclusion, the holistic perspective on health involves a comprehensive approach that considers the interplay of physical, mental, emotional, social, spiritual, and cultural factors. By addressing health from this holistic perspective, individuals, communities, and healthcare providers can work towards health strategies that encompass the full range of human experiences and needs.
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Financial literacy refers to the knowledge, skills, and understanding of financial concepts, tools, and practices that enable individuals to make informed decisions regarding their personal finances. It involves the ability to effectively manage money, budget, save, invest, and navigate financial institutions. Financial literacy empowers individuals to make sound financial decisions, plan for the future, and achieve financial well-being.
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Environmental justice is the fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people regardless of race, color, national origin, or income, with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental laws, regulations, and policies. It advocates for fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens, access to decision making, and recognition of community knowledge.
The concept also addresses environmental racism, a term that encapsulates the societal structures that disproportionately expose certain racial and ethnic communities to higher levels of environmental risk.
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Entrepreneurship is the activity of setting up a business or businesses, taking on financial risks in the hope of profit. It involves the development of a business plan, acquisition of resources, and the management of the new venture to allow it to grow and prosper. Entrepreneurs are innovators, often coming up with new ideas for products, services, or methods of doing business.
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Popular education is a form of education that emphasizes collective, participatory learning as a tool for social change. It differs from traditional education in its approach, which aims to empower learners to critically analyze their personal experiences and the societal structures that shape them. The ultimate goal is to enable individuals and communities to take collective action towards social justice.
Popular education is closely tied to the ideas of Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher who is often credited with founding the popular education movement. In his seminal work "Pedagogy of the Oppressed," Freire critiqued the "banking model" of education, in which knowledge is "deposited" into passive students. Instead, he argued for a problem-posing approach where learners actively engage with and question the world around them.
See also: Education
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Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of knowledge, skills, values, beliefs, and habits. It often takes place under the guidance of educators or teachers, but learners can also educate themselves through self-directed learning. Education can take place in formal or informal settings, and any experience that has a formative effect on the way one thinks, feels, or acts may be considered educational.
Education typically falls into three main categories:
In a broader sense, education also implies the entire process of developing and training the mental and physical capacities and abilities of individuals, thereby helping them reach their full potential and preparing them to participate fully in society.
See also: Popular Education
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Disparities typically refer to differences or inequalities observed among subgroups of a population. These differences can occur across many dimensions, including race, gender, socioeconomic status, or geographic location.
In public health, for instance, health disparities refer to the higher burden of illness, injury, disability, or mortality experienced by one group relative to another. Similarly, educational disparities refer to inequalities in access, quality, and outcomes of education.
It's crucial to note that disparities often have significant implications for social justice because they frequently reflect systematic, societal inequalities.
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Democratic community control refers to a framework in which local communities have the power and agency to make decisions and govern their own resources and affairs in a democratic manner. It emphasizes the participation, engagement, and decision-making of community members in shaping policies, programs, and initiatives that directly affect their lives. This approach seeks to challenge traditional top-down models of governance and promote grassroots democracy, community autonomy, and self-determination.
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Decolonizing refers to the process of deconstructing the laws, structures, and ideologies set by a colonial power on a colonized region. Decolonizing challenges and changes these colonial influences, bringing the culture, history, and perspectives of the colonized into the forefront.
In academia and research, decolonizing involves critically assessing and challenging the dominant Western or Eurocentric perspectives that are often considered universal in various disciplines. It's about valuing and integrating the knowledge systems, methodologies, and perspectives of previously colonized or marginalized communities.
See also: Colonialism
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Curriculum refers to a structured plan or framework that outlines the goals, content, instructional methods, and assessments for a specific educational program or course. It encompasses the knowledge, skills, and experiences that students are expected to acquire during their educational journey. Curriculum development involves making decisions about what to teach, how to teach it, and how to assess student learning to ensure meaningful and effective education.
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Cultural heritage refers to the inherited customs, traditions, knowledge, beliefs, artistic expressions, artifacts, and practices that are passed down through generations within a particular community, society, or group. It encompasses tangible and intangible aspects of a culture and represents the collective identity and history of a community, often playing a significant role in shaping its values, norms, and sense of belonging.
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Cooperation refers to the act of working or acting together for a common purpose or benefit. It is derived from the Latin word 'cooperari', meaning to "work together". It involves sharing knowledge, learning, and building consensus. Cooperation can occur among individuals, organizations, or nations and is considered a vital element in many aspects of life, including business, social, educational, and scientific endeavors.
Cooperation can be formal or informal, temporary or enduring, voluntary or compelled. For example, people might cooperate to organize a community event, companies might cooperate to develop new technology, or countries might cooperate on global issues like climate change or disease control.
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Areas or venues dedicated to fostering and enhancing social connections, collaboration, and communal activities. These spaces can be physical or virtual and are designed to promote community engagement, interaction, and cohesion among members.
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A U.S. federal agency established in 1934 responsible for regulating the securities industry, including stocks and bonds, and ensuring fair and transparent financial markets. The SEC's primary mission is to protect investors, maintain orderly market functions, and facilitate capital formation. It oversees corporate reporting by publicly-held companies, supervises key participants in the securities world, and enforces federal securities laws, taking action against companies and individuals who violate these laws.
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A U.S. federal law enacted in 1977 designed to encourage commercial banks and savings associations to meet the needs of borrowers in all segments of their communities, especially in low- and moderate-income neighborhoods. The CRA aims to prevent redlining, a discriminatory practice by which banks and other financial institutions refuse or limit loans, mortgages, and other financial services within specific, often racially determined, areas. Financial institutions are regularly assessed by federal regulators for their adherence to the CRA and are given ratings based on their performance in meeting community lending needs.
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Community organizing refers to a process by which individuals and groups within a community come together to identify common concerns, establish shared goals, and mobilize collective action to bring about social change and address community needs. It involves engaging community members, building relationships, developing leadership skills, and fostering collective power to influence decision-making processes and promote positive community development.
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Community-Based Research (CBR) participants are individuals from the community who actively engage in research projects that are based in their own community. In a CBR framework, community members, persons affected by the issues being studied, and organizational representatives are considered key stakeholders and equal partners in all phases of the research process. This includes defining the research question, data collection, interpretation of findings, and application of the results.
CBR emphasizes the importance of reciprocal relationships among research partners and aims to bridge the gap between research and practice, bringing multiple forms of expertise to address complex social problems. Thus, the role of community-based research participants goes beyond being subjects of study; they are collaborators and contributors to the research process.
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Community-Based Research (CBR) is a collaborative approach to research that equitably involves all partners in the research process and recognizes the unique strengths that each brings. It begins with a research topic of importance to the community with the aim of combining knowledge and action for social change to improve the material conditions experienced by people in community. CBR often involves researchers working in partnership with community members, grassroots organizations, and other stakeholders.
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CDFI stands for Community Development Financial Institution. It is a specialized financial institution that serves low-income and underserved communities by providing access to financial services and investments that support community development and economic empowerment. CDFIs are mission-driven organizations that aim to address financial gaps and promote economic inclusion in areas where traditional financial institutions may be less accessible.
CDFIs offer a range of financial products and services, such as affordable loans, credit, technical assistance, and financial education, to individuals, small businesses, affordable housing projects, and nonprofit organizations. They focus on supporting community development initiatives, including affordable housing development, small business startups and expansions, community facilities, and other projects that create jobs and improve the quality of life in underserved communities.
The history of Adinkra cloth and symbols:
The Akan people (of what is now Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire) had developed significant skills in weaving by the sixteenth century, with Nsoko (present-day Begho) being an important weaving center. Adinkra, originally produced by the Gyaaman clans of the Brong region, was the exclusive right of royalty and spiritual leaders, and only used for important ceremonies such as funerals. Adinkra means goodbye (Boddy-Evans, 2020).
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An apprentice is an individual who learns a trade or profession by practical experience under the tutelage of a skilled worker or professional. Apprenticeships often combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction and typically last for a specific period of time, during which the apprentice gradually gains the knowledge and skills needed to become proficient in the chosen trade or profession.
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Academic outcomes refer to the measurable educational results or accomplishments that a student achieves during their educational journey. These outcomes provide important insights into the effectiveness of an educational system, course, teacher, or specific learning experience.
Academic outcomes can include a wide range of different measures such as:
Academic outcomes are critical for understanding student learning and for making informed decisions about educational policy and practice.
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Access to credit refers to the ability of individuals or businesses to obtain loans or other forms of credit from financial institutions. This is an essential element for many economic activities, such as purchasing a home, starting or expanding a business, or managing unexpected expenses.
For Black Americans, however, access to credit has been and remains inequitable due to a combination of discriminatory practices and systemic barriers. Historically, Black communities were systematically denied access to mortgages and other types of loans through discriminatory lending practices like redlining. These practices have contributed to lasting racial disparities in homeownership, wealth accumulation, and business development.
In more recent times, studies suggest that Black Americans are often disproportionately affected by biases and discriminatory practices within the credit system. They are more likely to face limitations or restrictions in their ability to access credit (being “credit constrained”), have lower credit scores on average, and receive less favorable loan terms compared to white Americans, even when controlling for income and other factors. These disparities can further perpetuate economic inequality and hinder economic mobility for Black individuals and communities.
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Financial Accessibility:
Financial accessibility refers to the affordability of a service, product, or opportunity. It is often used in discussions about access to healthcare, education, and other essential services. It implies that costs should not be a barrier to accessing these services, and measures should be in place to ensure people can afford them, regardless of income level.
Personal Accessibility:
Personal accessibility relates to an individual’s ability to use, enjoy, or participate in a service or environment based on their personal circumstances, including factors such as disability, age, language proficiency, and technological literacy.
Community Accessibility:
Community accessibility refers to the degree to which services, opportunities, and resources are available and usable by a community. It often involves considerations of geographic location, cultural appropriateness, language, and social inclusivity.
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Accountability refers to the expectation or obligation of individuals, organizations, or institutions to take responsibility for their actions, decisions, and outcomes. It involves being answerable and transparent in terms of one's duties, obligations, and performance. Accountability often entails being subject to oversight, evaluation, and potential consequences for failures or misconduct, with the ultimate goal of promoting integrity, trust, and effective governance.
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The "achievement gap" refers to the persistent disparity in academic performance or educational attainment between different groups of students, typically groups defined by socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, or gender. It is often characterized by disparities in grades, standardized test scores, course selection, dropout rates, and college-completion rates.
The achievement gap can be observed at all levels of education, from elementary school through university, and can be influenced by a wide range of factors, including socio-economic status, access to educational resources, quality of schools and teachers, parental involvement, and cultural expectations and biases.
It's worth noting that the term itself is considered controversial by some, who argue it places too much emphasis on the perceived failures of students and not enough on systemic factors such as social and economic inequality, school funding disparities, and biased curriculum standards.
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Advocacy is the act of supporting, defending, or arguing for a cause, policy, or group of people. It involves actions taken to influence decision-making within political, economic, and social systems and institutions.
In general terms, advocacy aims to ensure that people, particularly those who are most vulnerable in society, can have their voice heard on issues that are important to them, defend and safeguard their rights, and have their views and wishes genuinely considered when decisions are being made about their lives.
There are various forms of advocacy, including:
Advocacy can be performed by a wide range of individuals or organizations, including non-profit organizations, charities, activists, lawyers, and even everyday individuals who feel passionately about a cause.
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The American Community Survey (ACS) is an ongoing survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau. It collects detailed population and housing information from a sample of households in the United States every year. Unlike the decennial census, which aims to count every resident every ten years, the ACS is conducted annually and provides estimates on social, economic, housing, and demographic characteristics. Information gathered through the ACS helps local, state, and federal officials understand community conditions and is used for planning public services, allocating government funds, and policy-making. Topics covered in the survey include education, employment, income, housing, transportation, and various other aspects of daily life. The data is released in one-year and five-year estimates, allowing for analysis at different geographic levels and timeframes.